Aims: Climatic change and anthropogenic activities have become the principal threats to global biodiversity. Genetic diversity, a fundamental component of biodiversity, is integral to species’ adaptation to environmental changes. Amphibians and mammals have distinct differences in evolutionary history, physiological functions, and ecological behaviors. Notably, their contrasting thermoregulatory capacities and mobility render amphibians may be more susceptible to climate change and human activities than mammals. However, it remains uncertain whether these differences result in divergent patterns of genetic diversity. Haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity are the critical metrics in assessing genetic diversity, yet their respective responses to climatic and anthropogenic influences need to be further investigated.

Methods: This study concentrated on amphibians and mammals, employing the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene fragment to investigate the impacts of climatic factors and human activities on haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity of these two vertebrate groups.

Results: We found a substantial difference in overall nucleotide diversity (D = 0.230, P < 0.01) and haplotype diversity (D = 0.211, P < 0.05) between amphibians and mammals. Distinct patterns were recorded on that how climatic and anthropogenic factors influenced nucleotide and haplotype diversity between the two groups. For amphibians, haplotype diversity was positively correlated with precipitation seasonality range (β = 0.467, P < 0.05), while it was negatively correlated with the annual temperature range (β = −0.223, P < 0.05). Furthermore, the human influence index (HII) showed a positive correlation with amphibian nucleotide diversity (β = 0.035, P < 0.05). Conversely, in mammals, HII was negatively correlated with haplotype diversity (β = ‒0.018, P < 0.05), whereas the annual temperature exhibited a positive correlation with nucleotide diversity (β = 0.002, P < 0.05).

Conclusion: Our results underscore the complexity of genetic diversity responses to climatic and anthropogenic influences. We advocate for the integration of multiple metrics to investigate the distribution patterns of genetic diversity and their driving factors. Future research should further explore the mechanisms through which human activities and climatic factors impact genetic diversity across various animal groups, aiming to develop more targeted biodiversity conservation strategies.

Aims: Our objective is to provide a better understanding on the background and community structure of fish diversity in the main inland water bodies of Shanghai.

Methods: We used specimens from 13 rivers and one reservoir in Shanghai to investigate the species resources and community structure of fish in the main inland water bodies of Shanghai. These specimens were examined qualitatively and quantitatively from July to August in summer and then from October to November in autumn in 2023.

Results: A total of 20,160 specimens belonging to 16 orders, 24 families, 57 genera, and 71 species were collected and identified. Cypriniformes, Gobiiformes, and Siluriformes accounted for 57.74%, 9.86%, and 5.63% of the total species, respectively. There were 57 species of freshwater fish, 11 species of estuarine fish, 3 species of migratory fish, and 5 exotic or artificial species. The high taxonomic composition of series Percomorpha and the rich ecological types of estuarine fish represented the characteristics of fish composition in estuarine tidal river networks in eastern China. There was an average of 35.9 species of fish in the 14 water bodies. The Punan Canal and Pudong Canal had the largest number with 47 species each, and Dishui Lake had the smallest number with 24 species. There were 15 dominant species and 14 common species with the average being 5 dominant species and 10 common species in each water body. Carassius auratus, Acheilognathus macropterus, Culter dabryi, and Chanodichthys erythropterus were the dominant species in the 14 water bodies. The Margalef richness index (D), Shannon diversity index (H'), Pielou evenness index (J'), and Simpson dominance index (C) showed fish diversity is higher in the 13 rivers such as Yuanxie River and lowest in Dishui Lake. The Cody index (β_c) of each water body ranged from 4.0-15.5 with an average of 9.9. A large species diversity was shown by the Routledge index (β_R) ranging from 12.44 to 28.76 with an average of 19.8. The ABC curve showed W was negative in most water bodies, and the abundance dominance curve was mostly above the biomass curve, showing the characteristics of community structure dominated by small and medium-sized individual fish. The fish communities in 14 water bodies were divided into 4 groups by cluster analysis. The similarities within the groups were approximately 74%, with the exception of the first group, and the differences between the groups were 31.42%-49.65%. The highest contribution of differences was Carassius auratus, Pseudorasbora parva, and Chanodichthys mongolicus.

Conclusion: Our results suggest the differences of fish community structure of main inland water bodies in Shanghai may be caused by natural conditions, regional location, release activities of the water bodies, and the land use forms where the water bodies are located. The water of the metropolis with dense buildings can also maintain a high diversity of fish species under the premise of protecting the water environment and fish habitat.

Background & Aims: Meta-analysis is a crucial statistical tool for deriving generalized conclusions through the weighted analysis of data from case studies, with broad applications in ecology. However, for a long time, researchers have significant misconceptions regarding the fundamental principles and methodological framework of meta-analysis, which has contributed to its misuse, even erroneous application.

Review Results: According to the standard steps of conducting a meta-analysis, this article summarizes the basic feature of meta-analysis and highlights critical considerations for its application, encompassing aspects such as: defining key concepts, literature search and screening, construction of effect sizes, selection of models, incorporation of special data structures, inclusion of explanatory variables, assessment of result reliability, and relevant software tools.

Conclusion: The clarifications of related concepts and key points will aid in constructing more precise and appropriate meta-analysis models, thereby enhancing the reliability of results. Furthermore, continued advancements in meta-analysis methodology is poised to offer more robust and reliable technical approaches for addressing numerous fundamental scientific questions in ecology.

Background & Aims: The ancient tree biocultural micro-conservation site (ATBMS) represents an innovative conservation pathway designed to synergistically protect the biological and cultural elements of ancient trees. This paper systematically elucidates its conceptual connotation and characteristics. It clarifies its unique position and value within the global protected area system. Through a comprehensive review of the development history of natural protected areas, a comparative analysis of related models such as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), plant micro-reserves, and small-scale natural conservation areas, and case studies.

Review Results: This research delineates the composite features of ATBMS, which centers on individual or small clusters of ancient trees while integrating their micro-habitats and cultural spaces. The core innovation of ATBMS lies in achieving fine-scale, synergistic conservation across both ecological and cultural dimensions. It addresses the gaps in OECMs regarding “cultural and fine-scale protection”, overcomes the “ecological-cultural divide” inherent in traditional small-scale protected areas, and complements small-scale natural conservation areas. Based on this, the study proposes differentiated conservation strategies tailored to various types of ancient trees (e.g., individual/clustered, natural/cultivated, urban/rural).

Conclusion: ATBMS can provide critical habitats for local biodiversity while preserving traditional knowledge and cultural memory. It serves as an effective complement to OECMs and offers an innovative paradigm of “precise and micro-scale guardianship” for global biocultural diversity conservation. Future efforts should focus on developing robust assessment indicator systems, promoting interdisciplinary research, and improving community co-management mechanisms to establish a scientifically sound ATBMS conservation framework.

Aims: Understanding the activity patterns, range, and suitable habitat distribution of Equus hemionus is essential for assessing its survival strategies in response to environmental changes.

Methods: In this study, we used camera trapping to survey water resource utilization patterns of Equus hemionus during summer season (June to August) from 2021 to 2023 in Kalamaili National Park candidate area. Meanwhile, we studied the kernel activity range of six rescue released Equus hemionus fitted with GPS satellite collars, tracking them from 2022 to 2024 in Kalamaili National Park candidate area. Finally, we combined camera trapping and GPS satellite data, and used the BIOMOD2 model to assess the suitable habitat distribution of species during the summer season, and evaluated the conservation gap within national park candidate area.

Results: The results showed that: (1) we obtained 5,996 independent detections of Equus hemionus at water resource during summer season. Among them, 2,825 independent-detections were recorded during the daytime, 2,212 in the nighttime, 459 in the morning and 500 at nightfall. (2) Equus hemionus exhibited random usage of water sites at nighttime (w_i= 1.32), daytime (w_i= 0.94), morning (w_i= 0.98) and nightfall (w_i= 1.07) in different time periods; the activity index at nighttime was slightly higher than in other three periods, with a peak activity period occurring between 23:00 and 04:00, while activity levels were relatively lower during the morning and nightfall periods; (3) the 50% kernel activity range was 4.98-162.18 km², with a mean of 76.34 ± 69.36 km²; the 95% kernel activity range was 27.67-2,117.72 km² with a mean of 892.95 ± 908.91 km²; (4) based on BIOMOD2 models, the suitable habitat area for Equus hemionus in Kalamaili National Park candidate area during summer was 1.94 × 10⁴ km², with 76.97% of the suitable habitat within national park candidate area boundaries.

Conclusion: Our study has preliminarily obtained the water resource utilization patterns, activity range and suitable habitat distribution of Equus hemionus in Kalamaili National Park candidate area. These findings enrich our understanding of behavioral ecology, and provide a scientific basis for developing conservation measures to protect the endangered species and their habitats in national park candidate area.

Aims: Scientific protection and effective management of wildlife highly rely on baseline data regarding biological resources, and the precision of survey methods directly affects the objectivity and accuracy of resource assessments. Environmental DNA (eDNA) technology has been widely used in monitoring of fish community, but its application in amphibian surveys still remains relatively limited and is mostly focused on detecting specific species. This study takes Hunan Mangshan National Nature Reserve as a case study to evaluate the detection efficiency and accuracy of eDNA technology in amphibian surveys.

Methods: eDNA test samples were collected from 19 water sampling sites within the reserve between July to August 2023. eDNA data were then compared with data collected during the same period using traditional transect survey methods. By calculating α and β diversity, a comprehensive evaluation of the two methods results was conducted.

Results: Both methods detected 34 amphibian species, with 24 species identified by both approaches. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed between the two methods in terms of the Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Simpson dominance index, and Pielou evenness index. PCoA and ANOSIM analysis showed significant differences in species composition between the two methods (P < 0.05), potentially influenced by species behavior, sampling location and timing, and environmental disturbances.

Conclusion: This study demonstrates that while eDNA technology offers clear advantages in amphibian resource survey, it cannot yet completely replace traditional transect method. It is suggested that eDNA techniques be integrated with traditional approaches to obtain more comprehensive and accurate baseline data on amphibian resources, thereby supporting more informed conservation and management efforts.

Aims: The increasing adoption of machine learning in ecological research has enabled the modeling of complex, nonlinear ecological patterns. However, the “black-box” nature of many machine learning models limits their interpretability, hindering the extraction of ecological insights. This review aims to introduce the core concepts, methods, and practical tools of interpretable machine learning (IML), and to demonstrate how these techniques can enhance ecological understanding from predictive models.

Methods: We first clarify key distinctions among white-box model and black-box model, global interpretability and local interpretability, and intrinsic interpretability versus post-hoc interpretability models. Using a simulated dataset representing plant diversity and environmental variables (e.g., elevation, temperature, soil moisture), we apply both white-box models (e.g., linear regression, decision trees) and black-box models (e.g., random forest) to illustrate major interpretability techniques, including regression coefficients, permutation importance, partial dependence plots (PDP), accumulated local effects (ALE), Shapley additive explanations (SHAP), and local interpretable model-agnostic explanations (LIME).

Results: White-box models offer direct and transparent interpretability through their model structure, while black-box models require additional tools to derive explanations. Our case study shows that both model types can yield consistent insights about variable importance and ecological relationships. Furthermore, methods such as ALE and SHAP effectively address common limitations in conventional approaches like PDP by accounting for feature interactions and dependencies.

Conclusion: IML provides a valuable toolkit for improving model transparency and interpretability in ecological research. It serves as a crucial complement to traditional statistical modeling, enabling researchers to extract meaningful ecological interpretations from complex models. As ecological data and modeling complexity continue to grow, the integration of IML techniques will become increasingly important for hypothesis generation and ecological decision-making.

Aims: Analyzing biodiversity patterns across multiple dimensions such as species, evolution, and function is essential for deeply understanding biological diversification and informing effective conservation strategies. As the province with the richest biodiversity in China and an important distribution center of Lauraceae plants globally, Yunnan is a key region for studying the multidimensional diversity patterns of Lauraceae plants and their environmental driving mechanisms. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the multidimensional patterns of biodiversity and to enhance the conservation system in Yunnan, we focused on Lauraceae, which is highly endemic and threatened in Yunnan, to conduct studies on diversity patterns and conservation.

Methods: By collecting distribution data, we examined the multidimensional diversity patterns of Lauraceae in Yunnan, identified its endemism and diversity hotspots, analyzed the dominant environmental factors shaping these patterns, conducted conservation gap analysis to inform conservation planning.

Results: (1) The results indicated that there were 21 genera and 225 species of Lauraceae in Yunnan, and the diversity patterns of the different dimensions were mismatched. (2) Southeast Yunnan, South Yunnan, Southwest Yunnan, Northwest Yunnan, Northeast Yunnan, as well as the Ailaoshan-Wuliangshan area in the central part were the diversity hotspots and centers of endemism of Lauraceae in Yunnan. (3) Water and soil were the dominant factors affecting the patterns of Lauraceae in Yunnan. (4) Current protected areas in Yunnan did not adequately cover Lauraceae conservation hotspots, leaving 63.4% of the critical areas unprotected. Notably, 52.6% of these conservation hotspots were located in narrow areas adjacent to neighboring provinces and countries.

Conclusion: A multidimensional comprehensive analysis method should be employed to fully understand the distribution patterns of regional biodiversity, and develop scientific and effective conservation planning. The conservation planning of Yunnan needs to focus particularly on edge conservation hotspot grids that are adjacent to neighboring provinces or countries.

Aim: This paper focuses on the advancements in taxonomic studies of spiders in 2024 worldwide, with detailed statistical analyses of new taxa, type localities, arachnologists conducting such research, and journals publishing these works.

Results: A total of 1,048 new taxa were described in 2024, including 54 new genera and 994 new species. They belong to 68 families, with type localities spanning across 83 countries or regions. The new taxa were documented by 394 arachnologists in 329 papers, published separately in 65 different journals. Out of these 329 papers, 57 (17.3%) comprised revisions of selected higher taxa (at family and genus levels), regional studies, and monographs. The proportion of papers incorporating DNA analyses made up 14.9% (totaling 49 papers). Among the 994 new species, 643 new species were published based on both male and female specimens, accounting for 64.7% of the total, and 351 new species only published based on male or female specimens, accounting for 35.3%. China is the country with the highest number of new species discovered, a total of 309, accounting for 31.1% of the global tally. With as many as 92 arachnologists naming new spider taxa, China becomes the country with the highest number of publishing spider taxonomists, accounting for 23.4% of the world’s total. Among them, the most prolific arachnologist is Shuqiang Li, who described a total of 144 new taxa, comprising 13.7% of the worldwide total for 2024. Altogether, Li and the other 91 Chinese colleagues described a total of 344 new taxa, comprising 18 new genera and 326 new species from China, Vietnam, and the other six countries or regions. These new taxa described by Chinese arachnologists made up 32.8% of the 2024 global aggregate, higher than the Chinese output during the 2016-2020 period (28.1% on average), but lower than in 2021 (33.8%), 2022 (37.0%) and 2023 (41.2%).

Aim: To collate and report on new vertebrate taxa in China published in 2024.

Method: This paper summarizes the basic information about new vertebrate taxa in China from the academic literature published in 2024.

Results: In 2024, 133 new vertebrate taxa were recognized in China, including 97 new species, 24 new record species, and 7 subspecies elevated to species rank, in addition, 1 new subspecies was described, and 4 species were reinstated as valid. These taxa belong to 16 orders, 47 families, and 87 genera. Among them, there are 40 new species of fish; 30 species of amphibian, including 25 new species and 5 new record species; 43 species of reptile, including 28 new species and 10 new record species in China, in addition, plus 1 new subspecies and 4 reinstated valid species; 10 species of bird, including 6 subspecies elevated to species rank and 4 new record species; 10 species of mammal, including 4 new species, 5 new record species, and 1 subspecies elevated to species rank. Ectothermic vertebrates account 85% of new discoveries; most representative orders were Cypriniformes (28/40) for fish, Anura (26/30) for amphibians, Squamata (39/43) for reptiles, Passeriformes (8/10) for birds, and Eulipotyphla (5/10) for mammals. These 133 new vertebrate taxa were recorded across 34 provincial-level regions. Most species (115) were found in only one region, while Yunnan, Guangxi, Xizang, Guangdong, and Fujian were the top five regions, with 46, 25, 18, 18, and 13 species recorded, respectively. A total of 111 of these discovered taxa have been supported by molecular systematics. Most findings (126 taxa) were published in 28 academic journals, with 15 of which were published in 4 English journals and 9 of which were published in 3 Chinese journals in China.

Conclusion: This article provides essential baseline data for the classification and conservation of vertebrates in China. In addition, it highlights that ectothermic vertebrates are a major focus of current diversity research, and underscores the importance of an integrated taxonomic approach for future studies.

Aims: Reconstruction of near-nature forests is an important approach to accelerate the recovery of urban vegetation and forest restoration. However, the spatial and temporal dynamics of species diversity, canopy structure, and biomass during the subtropical forest restoration remain unclear, especially in highly urbanized regions.

Methods: Based on long-term subtropical near-nature forest plant community that planted with native tree species in 2006 in Minhang District of the megacity Shanghai, we did the resurvey of plant community in 2023, and compared with the compositional changes of plant community through five historical surveys of core plots from 2007 to 2023. Aboveground biomass and the relations among aboveground biomass, species richness and tree height across temporal and spatial scales were analyzed using general linear regression.

Results: Along with near-nature forest succession, woody plant richness increased from 11 in 2007 to 18 in 2023, and stem density increased at early stages and then decreased. The aboveground biomass increased from 3.51 t/ha in 2007 to 208.83 t/ha in 2023. Evergreen tree species such as Camphora officinarum and Quercus myrsinifolia gradually became the dominant species. Aboveground biomass showed significant positive correlations with species richness (P < 0.01) and mean tree height (P < 0.001), and a significant negative correlation with stem density (P < 0.01). When comparing the compositional changes over space, at three scales of 5 m, 10 m and 20 m, the relations between aboveground biomass and stem density remained highly significantly positive (P < 0.001), but the relations with mean tree height shifted from no significant at 5 m scale to significantly negative at 10 m (P < 0.05) and 20 m (P < 0.05) scales.

Conclusion: During the 17-year subtropical forest restoration, the model of near-nature forest construction has clearly exhibited its efficacy in accelerating the succession process. These preliminary findings suggest that, during the construction and restoration of near-nature forests, we should pay attention to the dominant role of native tree species, and consider diverse species composition to effectively promote plant diversity and carbon storage.

Background & Aims: Biodiversity conservation is essential for ecological security and sustainable human development. Nevertheless, the intricate interactions within ecosystems and the impact of external influences like human actions and climate change create substantial hurdles for conservation efforts. The advent of artificial intelligence (AI) and large language models (LLMs) offers new opportunities in this field. This study aims to review how these technologies are being used.

Methods: We discussed recent progress in using AI and LLMs for biodiversity conservation research and practice. Our focus was on AI and LLMs in knowledge synthesis and discovery, ecosystem modeling, assessment and monitoring, decision-making, and fieldwork.

Results & Conclusion: There is great potential for AI and LLMs in biodiversity conservation research and practices. Despite the promise, challenges such as data quality, model response times, ecosystem heterogeneity, ethical considerations, and data security remain. Future research should focus on developing specialized AI models and building high-quality, multimodal biodiversity datasets to effectively address these challenges.

Aims: This study aims to systematically compile the species diversity of terrestrial mammals in Hainan Province, clarify the taxonomic status of certain species, and provide scientific references for the conservation and management of biodiversity in Hainan Province.

Methods: We systematically collected literature data on the classification and distribution of terrestrial mammals in Hainan Province over the past few decades. The study integrated field survey data, infrared camera monitoring data, and refers to the most recent references, including the Catalogue of Mammals in China (2024) and Diversity of China’s Mammals Inventory, Distribution and Conservation.

Results: The main results are as follows: (1) A total of 97 species of terrestrial mammals in Hainan Province, belonging to 9 orders, 26 families, and 61 genera. Chiroptera dominates, followed by Rodentia. (2) Among the 97 species, 6 are first-class nationally protected wild mammals, and 11 are second-class national protection. Additionally, 7 species are endemic to Hainan Province. According to the IUCN Red List (2021), 2 species are Critically Endangered (CR), 3 are Endangered (EN), 5 are Vulnerable (VU), and 6 are Near Threatened (NT). (3) From the perspective of faunal regions, 85 species belong to the Oriental realm, 9 species belong to the Palearctic realm, and 3 species are widely distributed. The Oriental realm accounts for 87.63% of the terrestrial mammal species in Hainan, showing absolute dominance. (4) A comparison with the 2009 revision of the mammal catalog of Hainan Island reveals 22 newly added species, including Chiromyscus langbians, Chiropodomys gliroides, Rattus andamanensis, R. exulans, Crocidura rapax, Eonycteris spelaea, Lyroderma lyra, Hipposideros pomona, H. pratti, Rhinolophus shortridgei, Miniopterus fuliginosus, Kerivoula furva, Harpiocephalus harpia, Murina aurata, M. eleryi, M. harrisoni, Myotis chinensis, M. davidii, M. horsfieldii, M. siligorensis, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, and P. tenuis. In contrast, 75 species listed in the previous catalog have been remained.

Conclusion: Through the compilation and updating of the terrestrial mammal species diversity in Hainan Province, our study provides foundational support for regional wildlife conservation and management efforts.

Background: Initiated in 1971, the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme seeks to establish a scientific basis for strengthening the relationship between humans and the environment, recognizing humanity as an integral part of nature. Its core vehicle, the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, has expanded to 785 reserves across 142 countries. Following the momentum of four world congresses held in Minsk, Seville, Madrid, and Lima, the Hangzhou Action Plan emerged.

Methods & Results: This paper systematically elaborates on the evolution of the MAB Programme and provides an interpretation of its latest UNESCO MAB Hangzhou Strategic Action Plan. The Plan is structured around three parts: background, action targets, and monitoring and evaluation. Its main body contains 34 action targets focusing on three key areas: supporting global environmental protection and sustainable development agendas, strengthening the construction and development of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, and advancing toward a sustainable future for humanity. Action Targets 1-13 translate global commitments—including the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework—into local action by safeguarding ecosystem integrity, expanding ecological restoration, and ensuring species and genetic diversity. Action Targets 14-26 reinforce the institutional, financial, and social foundations of the network through resource mobilization, inclusive governance, knowledge sharing, and international cooperation. Finally, Action Targets 27-34 focus on strengthening scientific research, adaptive governance, and global collaboration, ensuring that biosphere reserves serve as engines of innovation and education worldwide. Compared with the Madrid Action Plan and the Lima Action Plan, the Hangzhou Action Plan demonstrates stronger integration with global frameworks, places greater emphasis on equity, rights, and operational feasibility, and highlights financing and partnerships as core pillars. Despite challenges such as balancing conservation and development, addressing climate change, and coping with uneven resources, the Plan points the way toward a sustainable future of harmony between people and nature through enhanced partnerships, mainstreaming climate adaptation strategies, and promoting digital transformation.

Aims: Global biodiversity is under serious threat due to the intensification of climate change and human activities in the ecosystems. As a result, governments and the public are increasingly focused on implementing measures to mitigate biodiversity loss. In recent years, insect hotels have emerged as an innovative approach to biodiversity conservation in urban park management, attracting significant attention and being gradually adopted. The primary purpose of insect hotels is to provide breeding, nesting, and overwintering sites for insects—particularly solitary bees—in urban environments. By doing so, insect hotels contribute to maintaining species diversity and population stability. However, a comprehensive understanding regarding of the effectiveness and challenges of insect hotels in conserving urban insect diversity is still lacking.

Progresses: To address this, we review the global research status of insect hotels, including aspects such as the number of studies, geographical distribution, targeted species, and the materials and specifications of nesting tubes.

Prospects: We summarize the positive impacts (pollination, pest control, and popular science education) and limitations (low occupancy rate, invasive alien species, increased harm from natural enemies and pathogens) of insect hotels in promoting solitary bee diversity in urban environments and propose specific improvement strategies. This study aims to provide a scientific foundation and practical guidance for sustainable development of urban biodiversity.

Aims: Understanding the link between genetic diversity and species distribution is crucial for biodiversity conservation. Genetic diversity facilitates species’ adaptation to climate change, whereas area size results from the combined effects of climate change and species’ adaptive capacity. Under this context, climatic factors can be considered a pivotal link between genetic diversity and area size, exerting a regulatory influence on their relationship.

Methods: To assess the above hypothesis, the current study examined the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene fragment in avian species, exploring the influence of 8 climatic factors (annual temperature, annual temperature range, annual precipitation, annual precipitation range, precipitation seasonality, precipitation seasonality range, temperature seasonality, temperature seasonality range) on the relationships between haplotype diversity and area size, as well as nucleotide diversity and area size. Haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity were utilized as principal indicators of genetic diversity in this analysis.

Results: Results show that the overall nucleotide diversity of birds was 0.008 ± 0.001(mean ± SE), and the haplotype diversity was 0.699 ± 0.011. Additionally, the results revealed that climatic factor differentially affect the relationship between genetic diversity and area size. Notably, climatic factor predominantly influence the relationship between haplotype diversity and area size indirectly by altering the area size (df = 6, χ²= 10.77, AIC = 2,231.8, BIC = 2,270.5). In contrast, for nucleotide diversity, the climatic factor exert a dual impact, affecting both the area size and nucleotide diversity, thereby mediating the relationship between nucleotide diversity and area size in a more complex manner (df = 0, χ² = 0, AIC = 2,155.0, BIC = 2,219.6).

Conclusion: Our results recommend that multiple genetic diversity indices should be considered when examining the effects of climate change on genetic diversity. Additionally, more targeted biodiversity conservation strategies should be developed to effectively address the challenges posed by future climate change.