Aims: Biological resources are closely related to national economic and social development, and has key strategic value in food security, ecological security and energy security of a country. As a basic component of the ecosystem on earth, microorganisms are of great strategic significance to human’s life and the sustainable development of society. However, due to the lack of a sound system for the preservation, development and protection of strategic resources, many biological resources have been lost overseas through smuggling, entrainment and natural losses.

Method: Referring to other evaluation systems on biological resources, the assessment method to evaluate the strategic value of microbial resources was established in this study.

Results: Rare and endangered species, high economic value species, biosecurity species and strategic frontier species were chosen as the four aspects for strategic microbial resources, and a scoring system using the method of weighted assignment is established according to these aspects. The scoring system contains 7 different primary criteria with different weights, i.e., the weight of 25% for national conservation strategy, the weight of 15% for conservation status, population biology and economic value, and the weight of 10% for biosecurity, other value and strategic frontier. Based on the criteria, the strategic categories of 773 microbial species were assessed according to the criteria, of which 502 species were assessed as strategic microorganisms, including 440 species of fungi, 7 of oomycetes, 1 of microspore, 53 of bacteria and 1 of archaea. Besides, an online assessing platform (https://www. casbrc.org/assessment) was established with the function of scoring system for strategic microorganism and query for assessed species.

Conclusion: The strategic assessment method and the list of strategic microbial resources were firstly established in our country, which will provide important references for the collection, preservation, management and application of strategic microbial resources in China.

Background: Understanding how environmental filtering, biotic interactions, and neutral processes jointly shape species distributions and community structure is a central question in modern community ecology. However, traditional diversity indices, ordination analyses, and single-species distribution models (SDMs) cannot simultaneously integrate species associations, environmental gradients, functional traits, and phylogenetic relationships, thereby limiting their ability to disentangle community assembly mechanisms.

Framework: Joint species distribution models (JSDMs), particularly the hierarchical modelling of species communities (HMSC) framework, offer a unified and flexible Bayesian tool for community-level mechanistic inference. This study provides a systematic review of the statistical structure, mathematical foundations, and inferential mechanisms of HMSC, and establishes a complete analytical workflow encompassing data organization, model specification, Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) estimation, model evaluation, ecological interpretation, and predictive applications. A step-by-step tutorial, Joint Species Distribution Modelling with HMSC, accompanies the review and illustrates the practical implementation of HMSC through bryophyte community data and fully reproducible R code.

Theory: In the theoretical component, we clarify how HMSC integrates environmental gradients, species traits, phylogenetic relationships, and spatial structure within a unified hierarchical Bayesian framework to distinguish statistical signals of environmental filtering, biotic filtering, and dispersal limitation. Methodologically, we dissect the mathematical structure of latent variable models, elucidate the boundaries of ecological interpretation for residual correlations, and provide a conceptual basis for differentiating species co-occurrence signals from environmental effects and unobserved factors. We further compare HMSC with other mainstream JSDMs implementations and traditional community analytical methods, highlighting their relative advantages and ecological applicability.

Applications: On the applied side, we synthesize the rapidly expanding use of JSDMs across forest, wetland, grassland, marine, urban, and microbial ecosystems, demonstrating their value in conservation planning, invasive species risk assessment, co-occurrence network analysis, and scenario-based forecasting. With the advancement of GPU-accelerated computation, migration learning, and high-dimensional modelling frameworks, HMSC greatly improves ecological niche estimation and distribution prediction for rare species and enables community modelling for tens of thousands of taxa. Overall, JSDMs and HMSC in particular represent a methodological shift from single-species prediction toward integrative, multi-species and multi-dimensional ecological modelling. They provide an efficient, scalable, and uncertainty-aware platform that strengthens ecological theory testing, enhances understanding of community assembly mechanisms, and supports biodiversity conservation and management decisions.

Background & Aims: Species distribution models (SDMs), often synonymous with ecological niche models (ENMs), have solidified their position as indispensable tools in modern macroecology, biogeography, species invasion and conservation. Their utility in predicting a species’ potential geographic range, evaluating the impacts of climate change, and guiding targeted conservation efforts has led to a remarkable surge in their popularity and application over the last three decades. However, this rapid expansion has also exposed a significant and persistent conceptual gap: a growing disconnect between the practical application of modeling techniques and the foundational ecological theory that should guide them. A primary source of this issue is the widespread confusion surrounding the concept of the “ecological niche”. This ambiguity has led to conceptual errors, inappropriate method use, and potentially flawed ecological inferences. This paper addresses this critical gap by systematically reviewing the core niche concepts, linking them to specific modeling paradigms, diagnosing prevalent issues in current research, and offering recommendations to promote a more theoretically grounded and robust application of SDMs.

Review Results: The term “ecological niche” is not a single, unified concept. It encompasses three distinct yet complementary ideas. The Grinnellian niche defines a species’ existence based on the abiotic environmental conditions and habitat requirements that allow it to persist. As a “scenopoetic” or habitat-based framework, it is most closely aligned with standard SDMs, which statistically correlate species occurrence records with broad-scale climatic and environmental variables. The Eltonian niche, conversely, focuses on a species’ functional role within a community, emphasizing biotic interactions such as resource consumption, predation, and competition. This concept is central to community ecology and is better represented by methods like joint species distribution models (JSDMs) that account for residual correlations between species, or through explicit network analysis. The Hutchinsonian niche provides the most formal definition, conceptualizing the niche as an “n-dimensional hypervolume” encompassing all environmental and resource variables. Different modeling approaches correspond to these niche concepts. Standard correlative SDMs (e.g., MaxEnt, random forest) are primarily used to model the Grinnellian niche, generating a map of environmental suitability based on abiotic variables. To explore the Eltonian niche, JSDMs simultaneously model multiple species to infer interspecific interactions. The Hutchinsonian framework, particularly the concept of the hypervolume, is directly operationalized by analytical methods that quantify niche breadth, overlap, and centrality in multidimensional space. Mechanistic models, which use principles of physiology to predict survival and reproduction, offer a valuable complementary approach to approximate the fundamental niche. Despite these advances, the application of SDMs is fraught with common pitfalls. The most critical error is the fundamental vs. realized niche fallacy, where researchers mistakenly interpret the output of a standard SDM, which is trained on a species’ actual distribution, as a representation of its full fundamental niche. In reality, these models typically capture only a portion of the realized niche, constrained by unmeasured biotic factors and dispersal limitations. Additionally, many studies violate the core assumptions of SDMs, such as the assumption that species are in equilibrium with their environment or that sampling is unbiased. Ignoring biotic interactions and failing to account for non-equilibrium dynamics (e.g., recent invasions) further limits the accuracy and reliability of these models.

Conclusions: To advance SDM, this paper advocates for a multi-pronged approach grounded in ecological theory. First, researchers must strive for greater conceptual clarity, explicitly stating which niche concept their study addresses and interpreting results within that defined framework. Second, there is a clear need for enhanced methodological rigor and integration, encouraging the development of hybrid models that combine the strengths of different modeling paradigms, such as incorporating biotic interactions or dispersal dynamics into standard SDMs. Furthermore, adherence to best practices in data collection, model selection, and rigorous validation is paramount. The future of the field lies in transcending simple correlative methods and embracing a more integrative science that synthesizes Grinnellian, Eltonian, and Hutchinsonian perspectives. By leveraging new data streams and grounding our work in a deep understanding of ecological theory, we can ask more complex questions and provide more robust guidance for biodiversity management in an era of rapid environmental change.

Aims: Unequal sampling is a common issue in field-based community ecology. Choosing α-diversity metrics that remain robust when sample sizes vary among plots is critical for reliable biodiversity assessment. This study evaluated the performance of nine diversity indices, including five “observed” indices calculated directly from the data: (1) species richness, (2) Shannon index, (3) Simpson index, (4) Hurlbert’s rarefied richness, and (5) Fisher’s α; and four “richness-estimator” indices: (1) Chao1 index, (2) abundance-based coverage estimator (ACE), (3) the extrapolated value of iNEXT (interpolation/extrapolation), and (4) total expected species (TES).

Methods: Using simulation, the performance of each index was evaluated under a gradient of minimum-sample thresholds, and for each case the accuracy and precision of between-sites variance (linear regression R²) was recorded. The simulation built up 20 sites in which “true” species richness (S) was linearly correlated with an environmental gradient (x) with a theoretical coefficient of determination R² = 0.80. Four unequal-sampling scenarios were then generated by imposing different minimum sample sizes per site. For each scenario, linear models were fitted between every diversity index and x, recording the corresponding R².

Results: The results indicate that sample size (the number of individuals recorded at a sampling site, as well as the equivalent sampling completeness) is the primary factor determining index performance. As sample size increased, model R² of all diversity metrics significantly improved. Under extremely low sampling (minimum < 20 individuals; sampling coverage < 20 %), rarefied richness had a higher R² than other indices. When the minimum sample size reached 100 individuals, the estimator indices group outperformed the observed indices. This study further clarified the minimum sample size and the corresponding sampling completeness required for each index to recover the predetermined R².

Conclusion: Overall, rarefied richness is recommended for highly unequal, sample size-poor scenarios. In practice, rarefaction threshold should be set at a relatively high level (e.g., > 40 individuals) to enhance the overall comparability among sampling sites, even if it results in the exclusion of extremely under sampled sites. Once sampling completeness is adequate, richness estimators are preferable, as they can generate extrapolated richness that are close to the true gradient.

Background & Aims: The ancient tree biocultural micro-conservation site (ATBMS) represents an innovative conservation pathway designed to synergistically protect the biological and cultural elements of ancient trees. This paper systematically elucidates its conceptual connotation and characteristics. It clarifies its unique position and value within the global protected area system. Through a comprehensive review of the development history of natural protected areas, a comparative analysis of related models such as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), plant micro-reserves, and small-scale natural conservation areas, and case studies.

Review Results: This research delineates the composite features of ATBMS, which centers on individual or small clusters of ancient trees while integrating their micro-habitats and cultural spaces. The core innovation of ATBMS lies in achieving fine-scale, synergistic conservation across both ecological and cultural dimensions. It addresses the gaps in OECMs regarding “cultural and fine-scale protection”, overcomes the “ecological-cultural divide” inherent in traditional small-scale protected areas, and complements small-scale natural conservation areas. Based on this, the study proposes differentiated conservation strategies tailored to various types of ancient trees (e.g., individual/clustered, natural/cultivated, urban/rural).

Conclusion: ATBMS can provide critical habitats for local biodiversity while preserving traditional knowledge and cultural memory. It serves as an effective complement to OECMs and offers an innovative paradigm of “precise and micro-scale guardianship” for global biocultural diversity conservation. Future efforts should focus on developing robust assessment indicator systems, promoting interdisciplinary research, and improving community co-management mechanisms to establish a scientifically sound ATBMS conservation framework.

Background & Aims: Meta-analysis is a crucial statistical tool for deriving generalized conclusions through the weighted analysis of data from case studies, with broad applications in ecology. However, for a long time, researchers have significant misconceptions regarding the fundamental principles and methodological framework of meta-analysis, which has contributed to its misuse, even erroneous application.

Review Results: According to the standard steps of conducting a meta-analysis, this article summarizes the basic feature of meta-analysis and highlights critical considerations for its application, encompassing aspects such as: defining key concepts, literature search and screening, construction of effect sizes, selection of models, incorporation of special data structures, inclusion of explanatory variables, assessment of result reliability, and relevant software tools.

Conclusion: The clarifications of related concepts and key points will aid in constructing more precise and appropriate meta-analysis models, thereby enhancing the reliability of results. Furthermore, continued advancements in meta-analysis methodology is poised to offer more robust and reliable technical approaches for addressing numerous fundamental scientific questions in ecology.

Background & Aims: Both the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) and China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023‒2030) (China’s NBSAP) have highlighted the engagement of non-state actors in biodiversity conservation. Philanthropic funding provided to non-state actors for biodiversity conservation purposes can significantly fill the public funding gap. The Fifteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the Convention on Biological Diversity provided a unique opportunity for Chinese non-state actors to conserve China’s biodiversity. In 2021, during the first phase of COP15 in Kunming, a coalition of 10 Chinese non-state actors pledged to mobilize RMB 2.55 billion (USD 359 million) for biodiversity conservation by 2030.

Method: The study provides a systematic analysis by tracking the spending, outputs and outcomes of the pledge made in COP15 over the past five years, offering a systematic analysis of how biodiversity philanthropic funding in China has been mobilized and what results have been attained.

Results: During 2020‒2024, 11 major biodiversity-related philanthropic foundations invested a total of RMB 3.43 billion (USD 481 million) on biodiversity conservation activities. Among them, the seven foundations that made funding pledge at COP15 have spent RMB 1.55 billion (USD 217 million), equivalent to 60.7% of the total pledged amount. This funding has enabled non-state actors to deliver tangible results in the conservation of threatened species, habitat and area-based conservation, and biodiversity mainstreaming in China. The study also identified limitations of China’s conservation philanthropic funding: a disproportionate share of funding has flowed to afforestation-based “ecological restoration”, while comparatively less has been allocated to aligning with national programs or transforming private sector’s business models.

Conclusion: The study recommends that Chinese philanthropic funding should deepen collaboration with government-led biodiversity conservation initiatives to achieve the targets and goals of the NBSAP, and that transforming private sectors’ business models toward nature positivity should also be prioritized.

Aims: In recent years, molecular phylogenetic studies have prompted some changes in the names and taxonomic status of genera and species of Poaceae in China. Concurrently, the digitization of specimen information has provided vast amounts of species distribution data. Therefore, it is necessary to consolidate these changes to update the checklist of Poaceae in China and to investigate the diversity composition and distribution patterns of Chinese Poaceae from multiple perspectives.
Methods: Based on data collected from references such as Flora of China and the Catalogue of Life China: 2025 Annual Checklist, as well as online databases including the Tropicos, and combined with species distribution records obtained from the Chinese Virtual Herbarium (CVH), the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), and field investigations, we update the checklist of Poaceae in China and provide a statistical analysis of its composition and distribution.
Results: The statistical results indicate that there are 2,304 species of Poaceae in China, belonging to 283 genera, 37 tribes, and 10 subfamilies. Among these, native species account for 1,978, which belonging to 232 genera, 34 tribes, and 10 subfamilies (including 12 endemic genera and 1,028 endemic species). With this native species richness, Poaceae ranks as the second largest family of seed plants in China, following Asteraceae. The alien flora consists of 326 species from 109 genera, 20 tribes, and 8 subfamilies; cultivated plants constitute the majority (69%). Among the native species, the subfamilies Pooideae (746 species, 74 genera) and Bambusoideae (712 species, 46 genera) are the two most species-rich. At the genus level, Bambusa (99 species) and Elymus (96 species) are the two largest genera in terms of species number. The centers of generic and species diversity for native Poaceae are located in Southwestern and Southern China, which harbor 92% of genera and 76% of species nationwide. Regarding conservation status, there are 29 national key protected wild species (from 21 genera), 16 provincial protected species (from 15 genera), and 54 threatened species (from 31 genera). The top 15 herbaria collectively house 73% of all Poaceae specimens in China, and most of these herbaria are affiliated with institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Furthermore, specimen collections are concentrated in large genera and widely distributed species, while collections of oligotypic genera and narrow-range endemic species remain relatively insufficient.
Conclusion: This study updates the checklist of Poaceae species in China, analyzes the characteristics of their diversity, and summarizes the status of specimen preservation and collection. It can serve as a scientific basis for taxonomic and phylogenetic research, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable utilization of Poaceae resources.

Aims: The increasing adoption of machine learning in ecological research has enabled the modeling of complex, nonlinear ecological patterns. However, the “black-box” nature of many machine learning models limits their interpretability, hindering the extraction of ecological insights. This review aims to introduce the core concepts, methods, and practical tools of interpretable machine learning (IML), and to demonstrate how these techniques can enhance ecological understanding from predictive models.

Methods: We first clarify key distinctions among white-box model and black-box model, global interpretability and local interpretability, and intrinsic interpretability versus post-hoc interpretability models. Using a simulated dataset representing plant diversity and environmental variables (e.g., elevation, temperature, soil moisture), we apply both white-box models (e.g., linear regression, decision trees) and black-box models (e.g., random forest) to illustrate major interpretability techniques, including regression coefficients, permutation importance, partial dependence plots (PDP), accumulated local effects (ALE), Shapley additive explanations (SHAP), and local interpretable model-agnostic explanations (LIME).

Results: White-box models offer direct and transparent interpretability through their model structure, while black-box models require additional tools to derive explanations. Our case study shows that both model types can yield consistent insights about variable importance and ecological relationships. Furthermore, methods such as ALE and SHAP effectively address common limitations in conventional approaches like PDP by accounting for feature interactions and dependencies.

Conclusion: IML provides a valuable toolkit for improving model transparency and interpretability in ecological research. It serves as a crucial complement to traditional statistical modeling, enabling researchers to extract meaningful ecological interpretations from complex models. As ecological data and modeling complexity continue to grow, the integration of IML techniques will become increasingly important for hypothesis generation and ecological decision-making.

Background & Aims: Global biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate. As a widespread and diverse taxonomic group, birds are crucial indicators, and understanding drivers and consequences of their population dynamics is vital for biodiversity conservation. Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM), a non-invasive technique with high spatiotemporal resolution, offers a revolutionary tool for large-scale, long-term avian diversity surveys. Despite the rapid development of PAM globally, its application in China is currently hampered by scattered projects, heterogeneous equipment, and inconsistent methodologies. This has resulted in a “data island” dilemma, significantly hindering data integration and comparability and limiting the utility of these data for biodiversity policy and conservation. This study aims to provide a scientific blueprint and implementation guide for establishing a standardized, networked, and intelligent avian acoustic monitoring system in China.
Method & Results: We systematically reviewed the corresponding urgent needs of PAM in light of the global loss of avian biodiversity. We then compared and analyzed the technical development, network construction, and data-sharing experiences of avian PAM both internationally and domestically, identifying the core challenges China faces due to the lack of unified standards. Drawing on successful international PAM practices, we propose a comprehensive framework of standards suitable for China. This framework covers the entire workflow, from monitoring design and core technical parameters to metadata standards and data processing and analysis.
Perspectives: Finally, we present a series of actionable recommendations and a strategic roadmap for future implementation. These proposals address multiple facets, including top-level design, national network construction, technological innovation, data sharing mechanisms, and essential policy support, charting a clear course for the future of avian acoustic monitoring in the nation.

Aims: Zhejiang Province features complex water systems and extensive sea area that support high fish diversity. However, comprehensive studies on fish diversity in this region remain insufficient. To update and refine the fish species checklist of Zhejiang Province, we summarize taxonomic revisions for each taxon, species geographical distribution patterns, and their conservation status.

Methods: Based on existing literature, survey records and updated taxonomic and systematic findings, we revised the fish species checklist and distribution information of Zhejiang Province since the publication of Species checklist of freshwater fishes in Zhejiang Province and Marine Fishes of Zhejiang Province. The average similarity index (S) and cluster analysis were employed to examine the relationships among native inland fish communities across eight major water systems.

Results: The classification and distribution of 118 fish species in the original checklist were revised, and 237 species were added in our study. As of 31 December 2024, 1,148 fish species (including 13 alien species) were recorded in Zhejiang, belonging to 659 genera, 257 families, 46 orders, and 3 classes. The dominant orders are Perciformes (395 species), Cypriniformes (130 species), Scorpaeniformes (72 species), Pleuronectiformes (71 species), and Tetraodontiformes (53 species), collectively accounting for 62.80% of Zhejiang’s total fish species. There are 201 native inland fish species in Zhejiang, with the highest species richness observed in the Qiantang River (including Cao’e River) (155 species) and the Oujiang River (136 species); additionally, 934 native marine fish species are distributed in the region. The average similarity index of native inland fish communities among eight water systems exceeds 0.650. Cluster analysis of fish fauna shows that at a similarity distance of 0.5, the Tiaoxi River and the Grand Canal form one cluster; the Yongjiang River, Jiaojiang River (Lingjiang River), Oujiang River, Feiyun River, and Aojiang River form another; while the Qiantang River (including Cao’e River) forms a distinct cluster. Among Zhejiang’s fishes, 121 native species are under state protection or considered threatened. Of these, 14 species are listed in the List of State Key Protected Wild Animals, 32 species are included in the CITES Appendices, 104 species are assessed as Vulnerable (VU) or above on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and 16 species are similarly classified on China’s Red List of Biodiversity.

Conclusion: Zhejiang harbors abundant fish resources. Based on their current status, we suggest strengthening species research, habitat protection, and scientific publicity. This updated checklist will facilitate research and law enforcement, and provide foundational data for fish conservation and sustainable utilization.

Aims: Environmental DNA (eDNA) technology has been increasingly applied in biodiversity research. However, its rapid development has also sparked methodological debates. A key issue involves the selection of bioinformatic pipelines, particularly for extremely biodiverse taxa such as invertebrates. Bioinformatic pipelines significantly affect eDNA-based biodiversity profiles, yet a systematic comparative evaluation of relevant pipelines is currently lacking. Therefore, this study aims to compare and evaluate bioinformatic pipelines commonly used for analyzing eDNA-derived invertebrate sequencing data.

Method: Invertebrate metabarcoding sequencing was carried out on freshwater eDNA samples, and the performance of various bioinformatic pipelines in processing invertebrate sequences was comparatively assessed. Four commonly used clustering or denoising methods (UPARSE, Swarm, UNOISE, and DADA2) and three taxonomic assignment methods (BOLDigger, BLASTN, and Naïve Bayesian Classifier) were selected, together constituting 12 bioinformatic pipelines.

Results: Of the 12 evaluated pipelines, the combination of DADA2 denoising and BOLDigger taxonomic assignment yielded the largest number of invertebrate molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs), along with the highest levels of taxonomic coverage and resolution. Among the four clustering or denoising methods, UNOISE and DADA2 denoising yielded more invertebrate MOTUs than UPARSE and Swarm clustering. Among the three taxonomic assignment methods, BOLDigger and BLASTN yielded higher taxonomic coverage and resolution than Naïve Bayesian Classifier.

Conclusion: These findings have significant implications for eDNA-based research of freshwater invertebrate biodiversity. Furthermore, our results suggest that bioinformatic pipelines should be adjusted according to different study taxa and barcode regions to obtain accurate and reliable biodiversity data.

Aims: Since 2020, the average annual number of changes in plant names in China has accounted for about 1.5%. Although this proportion is small, the cumulative changes over time cannot be ignored. To timely integrate these plant nomenclatural changes into the Catalogue of Life China, it is necessary to compile information on new taxa, new records, and nomenclatural changes related to Chinese plants annually, facilitating reference for scholars.

Methods: We collected data on newly discovered taxa and nomenclatural changes for Chinese higher plants by reviewing 117 journals and related monographs. This compilation involved 409 articles from 61 journals and 5 monographs, focusing on the new taxa and nomenclatural changes of higher plants in 2024.

Results: In 2024, China reported a total of 6 new families, 5 new genera, 284 new species (including hybrid), 24 new infraspecies, 34 new higher taxa (including 1 suborder, 2 new subfamilies, 15 new supertribes, 8 new tribes, 8 subtribes), 5 new sections, 1 new series in higher plants. Additionally, 531 new combinations and status (5 at supraspecific level, 507 at species level and 19 at infraspecific level) and 92 replacement names were published. At the national level, 6 newly recorded genera, 56 newly recorded species, and 3 newly recorded infraspecies were documented. Furthermore, 166 names were synonymized with 109 species, 9 names were resurrected. 4 species that had not been observed for many years were rediscovered, and 3 species distribution was excluded. Among the newly published species, there were 4 bryophytes, 21 pteridophytes (including 2 hybrids), 3 new gymnosperms, and 256 angiosperms (including 1 hybrid) and 24 infraspecies. Detailed intergrative evidences were provided for 136 new species when described, accounting for 44% of all new species. Additionally, the conservation status of 97 new species were evaluated according to Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria when published, representing 31% of all new species. Four southwestern provinces, i.e., Yunnan, Guangxi, Xizang, and Sichuan, boast the highest number of species new to science, accounting for two-thirds of the total new species reported nationwide. Medog County is the richest in the number of new species and national new records among county-level administrative units, with 13 new species and 6 new records published.

Conclusion: In 2024, China witnessed a net increase of 316 new taxa of higher plants, accounting for 0.67% of the total Chinese plant species. Additionally, 796 names of higher plants underwent changes, accounting for 1.69% of the total. These changes represented 2.36% of all Chinese plant names modified in 2024, encompassing both species additions and nomenclature treatments. Multiple indicators suggest that the number of newly published plant taxa and nomenclatural changes in China have fluctuated but still remain at a comparatively high level.

Aims: The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau is the largest and highest plateau in the world, expanding across China, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Myanmar, with majority of its area in China. Its complex terrain and diverse climate conditions have nurtured a rich and unique biota, making it one of the global hotspots for biodiversity research and conservation. This study focuses on the herpetofauna diversity from the Chinese part of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, aiming to compile an annotated checklist of amphibians and reptiles of the region and analyze their distribution patterns for future taxonomic and conservation works.

Methods: Following Zhang et al (2021a), we clarified the scope of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau within China, covering 220 county-level administrative units in six provinces and autonomous regions. Based on this preset geographic area, we extracted data on herpetofauna diversity and their distribution from comprehensive literature review and supplemented their distribution data with our new field records. With the checklist, we further incorporated additional information including their endemic status, conservation status, and national protection status. Finally, we analyzed the county-level spatial distribution patterns of amphibians and reptiles separately, focusing on the total species richness, endemic species, threatened species (Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), and Vulnerable (VU)), assessment-pending species (Data Deficient (DD) and Not Evaluated (NE)), and newly discovered species.

Results: As of December 31, 2024, the amphibian fauna of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau comprised of 151 species in 39 genera, 12 families, and 2 orders (Caudata: 10 species in 3 genera and 3 families; Anura: 141 species in 36 genera and 9 families), representing 22.0% of China’s total amphibian species. On the other hand, the reptile fauna of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau includes 206 species in 62 genera, 19 families, and 2 orders (Testudines: 1 species in 1 genus and 1 family; Squamata: 96 species in 24 genera and 6 families for Lacertilia, 109 species in 37 genera and 12 families for Serpentes), representing 30.3% of China’s total reptile species. Among them, 64 species of amphibian and 72 species of reptile species are endemic to the region. Notably, over a quarter of the herpetofauna species of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau were either described or newly recorded within the past decade (2015-2024). According to China’s Red List of Biodiversity, 22.5% and 11.7% of the amphibians and reptiles from the region, respectively, are classified as threatened, while 42.4% and 43.7% of them respectively lack effective conservation assessments. Analysis of county-level distribution patterns reveals a clear spatial heterogeneity in herpetofauna composition across the region. Three distinct biodiversity hotspots emerge, including southeastern Xizang, northwestern Yunnan, and western Sichuan, and Medog County stands out with the highest species richness, endemism and number of new species/new records discovered among all county-level administrative regions.

Conclusion: Characterized by both a rich species diversity and a high level of endemism, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau possesses exceptional conservation value. Southeastern Xizang, western Sichuan, and northwestern Yunnan were identified as priority regions for continuous field surveys and taxonomic studies in the future. The lack of both conservation assessments and basic natural history data that support conservation assessments would prevent effective conservation of the herpetofauna from Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, and such data gaps should be filled urgently. Future conservation strategies must address escalating threats including habitat loss, overexploitation, and climate-driven environmental changes.

Guizhou Province is located in the hinterland of southwestern China and the eastern part of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, with a unique ecological position and rich biodiversity. Its higher plant species diversity ranks fourth in China. Based on the Flora of Guizhou, related literature, and specialized surveys, this study systematically compiled data on the diversity of higher plants in Guizhou, covering information such as species names, distribution, and conservation status. Statistics were conducted according to administrative divisions and natural geographic regions, including the four major mountain ranges and eight major river systems of the province. As of April 30, 2025, a total of 11,686 species and infraspecific taxa (including 9,921 species and 1,765 infraspecific taxa) of higher plants have been recorded in the province, belonging to 386 families and 2,396 genera. Among these, there are 10,967 species of wild higher plants in 373 families and 2,185 genera, 547 endemic higher plant species in Guizhou, 782 karst-obligate plant species, 719 commonly introduced and cultivated plant species in 115 families and 402 genera, and 202 invasive higher plant species. The dataset also records 256 national key protected wild higher plant species and 55 provincial key protected wild higher plant species in Guizhou. In terms of spatial distribution, Qiannan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (6,792 species) and Libo County (3,981 species) have the highest species richness among prefecture-level and county-level units, respectively. The Miaoling Mountains (6,340 species) and the Wujiang River System (8,732 species) are the regions with the highest species diversity among mountain ranges and river systems, respectively. These results provide important data for understanding the characteristics of higher plant diversity in Guizhou and for their conservation and utilization. They also offer a data support for the compilation of specialized works such as the Flora of Guizhou (second edition) and the Dendrology of Guizhou.

Background: Ex situ conservation is an important approach to conserving rare or endangered plants. The National Botanical Garden System Layout Plan of China proposed that more than 70% of the rare or endangered plants should be under effective ex situ conservation by 2035. However, the criteria that constitute effective ex situ conservation and the methods for its implementation remain poorly defined. This paper addresses these critical issues.
Results: Survival and normal growth, successful reproduction, self-sustainability, and species authenticity can serve as indicators for evaluating different extents of success of ex situ conservation, which are grouped into ex situ preservation and effective ex situ conservation. This paper suggests self-sustainability, genetic distinctiveness, and genetic integrity as the standards for effective ex situ conservation. Accordingly, four recommendations are proposed for implementing effective ex situ conservation.
Perspective: The definition, standards, and recommendations presented in this paper will help to clarify the concept of effective ex situ conservation, thereby facilitating the achievement of the goals set forth in the National Botanical Garden System Layout Plan of China.

Aims: This study aims to predict changes in plant distribution ranges under future climate change scenarios and to provide critical insights for assessing species survival potential and biodiversity risks, clarify plant response mechanisms to climate change, and offer a scientific basis for targeted conservation strategies. The East Asian-North American (EA-NA) disjunct distribution genera, with intercontinental phylogenetic relationships and niche conservatism, are ideal for exploring regional differences in plant responses to climate change. This study compares their responses across the two continents and examines the role of life forms (trees, shrubs, lianas, and herbs). 

Methods: Fifteen EA-NA disjunct distribution genera with comparable intercontinental distributional ranges, comprising 71 species in total, were selected. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was utilized to simulate their potential distributions under both current and future climate scenarios. Based on the modeling results, responses to future climate change were compared between regions (East Asia vs. North America) and among different life forms, focusing on three aspects: changes in suitable habitat area, latitudinal shift trends, and the degree of habitat fragmentation. 

Results: (1) North American species exhibited greater sensitivity to climate change than East Asian species, evidenced by a higher proportion of species experiencing significant changes in distribution area, more prevalent northward migration trends, and more pronounced habitat fragmentation. (2) The response of life forms to climate change showed regional differences: trees and lianas demonstrated stronger responses and more drastic distributional changes in North America; shrubs showed similar migration trends in both regions; herbs in East Asia displayed stronger fragmentation, while those in North America showed trends of expansion and enhanced connectivity. 

Conclusion: This study reveals regional differences and life-form dependencies in the responses of EA-NA disjunct distribution taxa to climate change. It indicates that macro-topographic patterns and life-form characteristics jointly drive these disparities, highlighting the key role of topography in determining species’ climatic resilience. The findings provide important scientific support for identifying cross-regional conservation priorities and formulating life-form-specific adaptation strategies.

Aims: Spice plants are one of the most significant commodities in global trade since the Age of Exploration and they still hold important economic and medicinal value nowadays. Ethnobotanical research on spice plants meets the needs of modern society and aligns with modern societal demands and the development trends of the “Big Health” industry. Ethnobotany studies play a crucial role in promoting the utilization of plant resources and the economic development of ethnic regions by offering unprecedented clues for screening medicines related to human safety and pharmacological activity. China, Myanmar, and Laos tropical regions are one of the global biodiversity hotspots with abundant spice plants and cultural diversity. This study aims to catalogue the traditional knowledge of spice plants consumed by the ethnic groups in these regions, thereby providing a scientific basis for their conservation and sustainable utilization.
Methods: Based on ethnobotanical principles and multidisciplinary approaches, integrating botany, anthropology, pharmacology, linguistics, ecology, and economics, field surveys were conducted in China, Myanmar and Laos tropical regions. Semi-structured interviews (“5W+H”), village and market investigations, were done among eight ethnic groups, including Dai, Hani, Yao, Lao, Khmu, Burmese, Chin, and Kachin people. Literature on spice plants published in English or Chinese from 1985 to 2024 were reviewed. The spice plants diversity, traditional knowledge, resources origin and conservation status were systematically collected. Use value (UV) and Jaccard index (JI) were analyzed.
Results: A total of 414 spice plant species (including varieties) belonging to 63 families and 206 genera were documented. Among 300 medicinal, 123 edibles, 95 flavoring and 74 dual-purpose (medicinal-edible) species, 54.83% were herbs, with leaves (46.62%) and roots (20.77%) as the main used parts. Spice plants with a UV greater than 0.2 are predominantly multifunctional medicinal-food species. Of all recorded species, 178 could only be collected from wild, 185 were cultivated; however, only about 12% of them have fully completed the transition from wild harvesting to cultivation and market sale. The Jaccard index of spice plants utilization across the three countries is relatively low (JI, 0.20-0.25), indicating the rich cultural diversity and distinct ethnobotanical traditions shaped by long-term adaptation to different ecological and cultural contexts in these regions. There were 52 (12.56%) species under protection or threaten, and 15 nationally protected or rare and endangered spice plants were identified for priority investigation, conservation and utilization.
Conclusions: This study provides the world’s first comprehensive and systematic ethnobotanical catalogue of spice plants utilized by local ethnic communities in the tropical regions of China, Myanmar, and Laos. It not only provides an initial intellectual prototype for the sustainable development and cross-border utilization of spice plant resources in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, but also offers fundamental data and scientific case for promoting transboundary cultural and biodiversity conservation and contributes to the green development of the Belt and Road.

Background: Amid the accelerating global biodiversity crisis driven by human activities, precise monitoring and assessment of species distributions and population dynamics have become urgent priorities for conservation. Traditional survey methods often suffer from imperfect detection, leading to biased estimates of occupancy and hindering effective management decisions. The advent of big data offers opportunities for integrating diverse sources, yet challenges in handling heterogeneity and observational biases persist. Hierarchical occupancy models, by explicitly separating ecological processes (true occupancy) from observation processes (detection probability), provide a robust statistical framework to obtain unbiased inferences and have emerged as a powerful tool in biodiversity monitoring.

Main Content: This paper reviews the theoretical foundations of hierarchical occupancy models, including the classic single-season framework and key extensions such as multi-season (dynamic) models for quantifying colonization, extinction, and temporal trends, as well as multispecies (community) models that harness interspecific correlations to enhance inferential precision. We highlight their core advantages: correcting for false negatives through explicit detection probability estimation, flexibly integrating heterogeneous multi-source data, and generating interpretable, auditable ecological indicators for biodiversity assessment. However, practical applications face several challenges, including data quality and heterogeneity issues, violations of key assumptions (e.g., independence of observations, population closure within seasons, absence of false positives), potential constraints on the biological interpretability of parameters, high computational demands for complex models and large datasets, and difficulties in communicating results to non-specialists and policymakers. Corresponding mitigation strategies are discussed, such as standardized data preprocessing, rigorous assumption validation, interdisciplinary collaboration, algorithmic optimization, and enhanced science-policy translation.

Conclusion: Hierarchical occupancy models significantly advance the scientific rigor and reliability of biodiversity monitoring and evaluation by addressing imperfect detection and enabling integrative analyses. Moving forward, continued methodological innovations, fusion with emerging data types and technologies, deeper cross-disciplinary integration, and efforts toward standardization and broader application will further strengthen their role in supporting evidence-based conservation in the face of ongoing global change.

Aim: The interactions between herbivorous insects and woody plants have attracted wide attention due to their critical roles in ecosystems. So far, an increasing number of studies have investigated the distribution patterns of leaf herbivory intensity across the forest and the underlying factors influencing it. Consequently, numerous hypotheses have been proposed in the context. However, these hypotheses may not be universally applicable across different forest communities. In particular, systematic validation in mid-subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests remains limited. Moreover, current research has predominantly focused on a limited number of species, and the extent to which these findings can be generalized to the entire forest community requires further investigation and verification.
Methods: In this study, we investigated 400 individuals from 149 broad-leaved tree species in a 25-ha subtropical forest dynamics plot at Baishanzu (Baishanzu plot), Zhejiang Province. First, interspecific differences in leaf herbivory intensity (herbivory rate and frequency) were compared among tree species. Here herbivory rate was proportion of leaf area consumed by herbivory and herbivory frequency was proportion of leaf by herbivory. And then, based on the plot data, a generalized linear mixed model was used to systematically investigate the effects of sampled tree species categories (classified by tree life form and abundance), leaf size, neighboring tree diversity and composition, and soil nutrients on herbivory rate, with the aim of identifying the dominant factors driving herbivory rate in the Baishanzu plot.
Results: (1) 99.40% of herbivory in the plot was caused by chewing insects. The average herbivory rate was 7.18%, and the average herbivory frequency was 65.38%. There were significant differences in herbivory rate and frequency among different tree species. Moreover, the herbivory rate of evergreen species was significantly higher than that of deciduous species, common species were significantly higher than rare species, and tree species were significantly higher than shrub species. (2) The results of the model indicated that tree categories significantly influenced herbivory rate, and there was a significant positive correlation between herbivory rate and the phylogenetic diversity of neighboring trees. Furthermore, the results of the variance decomposition showed that tree life form (tree vs. shrub) exhibited the highest relative contribution, accounting for 62.33% of the explained variation.
Conclusion: The findings of this study corroborated the plant-apparency hypothesis regarding insect herbivory, indicating that evergreen, common, and tree species experienced greater levels of herbivory due to their higher apparency within the community. Additionally, this study also revealed the existence of an associational susceptibility effect in the Baishanzu plot, suggesting that mixtures of phylogenetically distant trees resulted in more severe insect herbivory.

Aim: Against the backdrop of rapid urbanization, urban parks have increasingly served as critical biodiversity refugia. However, quantitative studies on the composition characteristics of park avian communities and the effects of park spatial features (area, waterbody distribution) on avian species richness remain scarce at the national scale.
Methods: This study used standardized observational data from BirdReport (https://www.birdreport.cn/), including records from 942 parks in 175 Chinese prefecture-level cities (as of December 31, 2023). We analyzed national-scale patterns of avian diversity in urban parks, examined environmental driving mechanisms, and compiled the first comprehensive Checklist of Birds in Urban Parks of China.
Results: A total of 751 bird species (22 orders, 91 families) were documented in urban parks, representing 49.8% of China’s total avian species. This included 26 nationally Class I protected species, 46 Class II protected species, 4 species listed as Critically Endangered (CR) and 8 as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List. Birds in parks are predominantly migratory. The proportion of resident birds in urban parks in southern China is significantly higher than that in northern China, whereas the proportion of migratory birds is higher in northern China. Bird species in urban parks in northern China are more inclined to insectivory and herbivory (granivory), whereas those in southern China are more inclined to insectivory and omnivory. Park area (Estimate = 0.1899, P < 0.001), presence of internal waterbodies (Estimate = 0.2512, P < 0.001), and presence of external waterbodies within a 0.5 km buffer (Estimate = 0.2581, P = 0.004) all exerted significantly positive effects on avian species richness. Notably, waterbodies (especially external ones) emerged as a more critical driver than park area.
Conclusions: Given the dominance of insectivorous migratory birds (40.8%) and the high dependency of threatened species on waterbody habitats, we recommend prioritizing the creation of semi-natural shrub habitats and optimizing waterbody-ecological corridor networks to enhance the conservation function of urban parks.

Environmental changes driven by human activities are posing severe threats to global biodiversity. In conservation biology, the IUCN Red List is often used as a critical benchmark for assessing species extinction risk. However, significant gaps remain in the evaluation of extinction risks for certain taxa, such as insects. China, with its rich butterfly diversity, currently relies heavily on historical data for its IUCN Red List assessments, without incorporating projections of future survival risks. This study integrated 247,248 distribution records of 1,920 butterfly species in China, among which the current distribution records for 598 species are insufficient for modeling, and these 598 species are categorized as Data Deficient. For the 1,322 species with sufficient data, we simulated potential distribution changes from the present to 2070 using ensemble species distribution models, incorporating future climate and land-use data. By quantifying changes in distribution area and applying the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (using the A3c criteria), we systematically evaluated the threat levels to these species. The findings reveal significant differences in the threats to butterfly species across future scenarios, with the highest number of threatened species (277) under the high forcing pathway SSP5-8.5, along with an average range reduction of 55.0%. Compared to previous IUCN Red List assessments, this study newly identifies multiple species susceptible to future climate changes. It provides the first future scenario-based IUCN Red List assessment for butterflies in China, highlights the severe threats to biodiversity under high-emission pathways, identifies key groups requiring priority conservation, and offers a scientific basis for developing proactive conservation strategies.

Background & Aim: Species represent fundamental entities in biological research. In recent years, the integrative species concept has gained increasing popularity. It emphasizes that the delimitation of closely related species should be based on multiple lines of evidence. Juniperus coxii, initially described as a variety of J. recurva, was subsequently elevated to species rank. Nevertheless, population-level evidence supporting this taxonomic classification remains scarce.

Methods: To clarify the boundaries between two taxa within the J. recurva complex from the eastern Hengduan-Himalayan region, chloroplast DNA sequences were obtained from 197 individuals across 26 populations for lineage delimitation. While the molecular data delineated the phylogenetic framework, statistical morphological analyses and niche differentiation assessments were further conducted on representative populations. Additionally, ecological niche modeling was performed by integrating environmental climatic factors from both our sampling sites and previously published occurrence records.

Results: Chloroplast haplotype network analysis has divided the J. recurva complex into two lineages: eastern and western. Geographically, these lineages have been roughly separated by Cona City. No significant statistical discontinuity has been observed in their morphology, although morphological variation has been found among individuals. The ecological niches of the eastern and western lineages have shown significant differentiation, with some overlap remaining.

Conclusion: The above evidence supports classifying populations west of Cona City as J. recurva, while eastern populations represent J. coxii. However, as this study relies exclusively on chloroplast DNA data, further research employing nuclear genome-derived molecular markers is warranted.

Aims: Gibbons were once widely distributed in China. Due to massive habitat loss, gibbons’ distribution range shrunk from north to south, and from east to west in China. Nowadays, they can only be found in remote areas in Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, and Xizang. To promote research and conservation of gibbons in China, this review provided a chronological overview of the research history and major advances in the study of gibbons in China.

Methods: The literature relevant to gibbon morphology, taxonomy and phylogeny, genetics, ecology, and conservation in China were reviewed, and the results were presented in three chronologically arranged sections.

Results: More than 2,000 years ago, ancient Chinese people could distinguish gibbons from monkeys, and briefly described their morphology. Over the following more than 1,000 years, the ancient Chinese people’s understanding of gibbons gradually deepened, and they provided descriptions of its distribution, behavior, and coat color changes. Since 1980, with the deepening of investigations and the increase in the number of specimens collected, Chinese scholars have gradually clarified the distribution and taxonomy of gibbons in China. At this time, scholars from China and abroad began to study the behavior and ecology of gibbons in China and made initial progress. After 2000, scholars successfully habituated wild gibbons, conducted year-around observations, and continuously monitored some populations, obtaining detailed data on the behavior, ecology, social structure, and life history of various species. Meanwhile, new technologies such as infrared cameras, drones, and passive acoustic monitoring have been applied to the research and conservation of gibbons in China. This review synthesized the research progress in nine key areas: taxonomy and phylogeny, population genetics, home range and habitat utilization, foraging behavior, communication, sleeping behavior, social organization and structure, life history and reproduction, as well as conservation.

Conclusion: Significant progress has been made in the research and conservation of Chinese gibbons over the past 20 years. Some gibbon populations in China have shown signs of recovery. In the future, with the mainstreaming of biodiversity conservation, the research focus of gibbons in China will shift to conservation studies. In-depth research on the nutritional ecology, reproductive ecology and interspecific competition of gibbons, as well as the development and application of new population monitoring technologies, translocation of small isolated individuals, and reintroduction of captive gibbons to their historical habitat will further promote the population recovery of gibbons in China. No scientific research can do without the training of talents. It is hoped that more young people will get involved in the research and conservation of gibbons in China.

Bird vocalizations, as an important bioacoustic indicator for interspecific identification, population dynamics, and ecosystem assessment, play a crucial role in biodiversity monitoring. We conducted acoustic monitoring in Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park from June 2021 to April 2022. We used manual recording and passive acoustic monitoring equipment to collect data, in combination with artificial intelligence recognition algorithms and manual review, to construct a localized vocalizations database containing 46 common bird species from 25 families and 9 orders. The dataset covers a total of 12,187 audio segments automatically identified and filtered by the AI model, as well as standardized vocal samples of 1-20 segments per species manually selected. This database provides basic data support for research on vocalizations of geographically specific populations of tropical rainforest birds, large-scale acoustic monitoring driven by artificial intelligence, and biodiversity assessment of national parks.

Aims: β diversity reflects the differences in species composition among communities, serving as a key indicator linking local and regional biodiversity while characterizing spatial distribution patterns of species. In this study, using data from a large forest observation network in the Xiaoxing’an Mountains, we disentangled the patterns, components, and influencing factors of forest β diversity, aiming to provide a scientific basis for biodiversity conservation in this region.
Methods: Using the Podani partitioning method, we decomposed β diversity to assess the relative contributions of species replacement and richness difference. We further quantified the local contribution to β diversity (LCBD) and the species contribution to β diversity (SCBD) to identify ecologically unique sites and key species. In addition, regression and variance partitioning analyses were applied to evaluate the relative effects of environmental, spatial and human disturbance factors on community composition, thereby uncovering the ecological mechanisms underlying forest community assembly and biodiversity patterns.
Results: (1) Species replacement was the dominant process driving community dissimilarity across the study area. (2) The SCBD values ranged from 0.002% to 21.918%, with Betula platyphylla contributing the most and Populus suaveolens the least. Species with higher SCBD values largely overlapped with the dominant tree species in the region. (3) LCBD values ranged from 0.537% to 2.677%. Plots with higher species richness exhibited higher LCBD values, with southeastern sites generally having greater LCBD values than those in the northwestern. (4) Climatic factors were identified as the primary drivers of LCBD variation. The interaction between climate, spatial, topographic, and human disturbance variables influenced water availability and habitat heterogeneity, thereby indirectly shaping species spatial distribution patterns.
Conclusion: Our findings reveal the spatial patterns and ecological drivers of forest β diversity in the Xiaoxing’an Mountains, highlight key regions and species essential for maintaining β diversity, and provide scientific evidence for forest ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation in this region.

Aims: Establishing biodiversity baselines is essential for supporting the development of China’s protected area system with national parks as the mainstay. This study aims to document bird and mammal diversity in the Mangkang Yunnan Snub-nosed Monkey National Nature Reserve, Xizang and to examine the seasonal spatial occupancy patterns of selected representative species based on long-term camera trapping.
Methods: From December 2021 to July 2025, a total of 122 infrared camera traps were deployed across the reserve and adjacent areas for continuous wildlife monitoring. We summarized species richness and relative abundance for all detected birds and mammals. Based on data completeness and representativeness, we selected five representative species—Vulpes vulpes, Capricornis milneedwardsii, Rhinopithecus bieti, Crossoptilon crossoptilon, and Ithaginis cruentus—for single-season occupancy modeling to evaluate seasonal differences in spatial occupancy habitat use.
Results: The survey recorded 26 species of mammals (12 families, 4 orders) and 51 bird species (18 families, 8 orders). Six species were listed as Class I nationally protected species in China—Panthera pardus, Moschus berezovskii, M. chrysogaster, Rhinopithecus bieti, Tetrastes sewerzowi, and Tetraophasis szechenyii—and 20 species were listed as Class II nationally protected species. Among mammals, Elaphodus cephalophus, Lepus oiostolus, Capricornis milneedwardsii, Macaca mulatta, and Vulpes vulpes showed the highest relative abundance. Among birds, Ithaginis cruentus, Crossoptilon crossoptilon, and Tetraophasis szechenyii were dominant. Occupancy probabilities differed significantly among species and seasons. Vulpes vulpes showed the highest mean annual occupancy (ψ=0.64), followed by Capricornis milneedwardsii (ψ=0.44), Rhinopithecus bieti (ψ=0.43), and Crossoptilon crossoptilon (ψ=0.43), whereas Ithaginis cruentus exhibited relatively lower occupancy (ψ=0.41).
Conclusions: Seasonal spatial use patterns differed substantially among species, indicating strong species-specific responses. These variations were associated with various environmental factors, including vegetation conditions, topographic features, and water availability. This study provides a comprehensive assessment of bird and mammal diversity in the reserve and clarifies the seasonal spatial occupancy patterns of selected representative large- and medium-sized mammals and ground-dwelling birds, providing a solid scientific basis for biodiversity conservation planning and adaptive management within the reserve.

Aims: This study aims to reveal the daily activity rhythms, spatial distribution, environmental responses, and coexistence patterns of roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), filling the research gap regarding the spatiotemporal distribution and coexistence patterns of ungulate species in Pangquangou National Nature Reserve. This is of great theoretical and practical significance for understanding interspecific interactions in North China and guiding the ecosystem management of protected areas.

Methods: Based on the monitoring data collected by 40 infrared cameras deployed in Shanxi Pangquangou National Nature Reserve from August 2023 to November 2024, this study systematically analyzed the spatiotemporal distribution and coexistence patterns of sympatric roe deer and wild boars using multiple methods, including ensemble models, kernel density estimation, daily-discrepancy index (α) and diurnal-nocturnal index (β).

Results: (1) A total of 40 infrared cameras operated continuously for a cumulative 15,880 camera-days, capturing 7,116 independently identifiable valid photos, including 2,344 of roe deers and 192 of wild boars. (2) Both species showed a diurnal bimodal activity pattern (roe deer: β = 0.63; wild boars: β = 0.71). The monthly differences in daily activity patterns were not significant (P > 0.05), but there was a significant difference in the overlap of daily activity rhythms (Δ₄ = 0.85; 95% CI: 0.81-0.87; P < 0.05). The morning activity peak of roe deer occurred 1-2 hours later than that of wild boars, while their afternoon activity peaks were nearly synchronous. This temporal shift indicates that the two species reduce interspecific competition through temporal niche differentiation. (3) The ensemble models showed good performance in predicting the distribution of both species (TSS > 0.7, AUC > 0.9). The suitable habitats of both roe deer and wild boars were mainly concentrated in the central part of the reserve. The suitable habitat area for roe deer was 71.64 km², accounting for 67.06% of the total reserve area; the suitable habitat area for wild boars was 59.08 km², accounting for 56.91%. The niche overlap between the two species was high (Schoener’s D = 0.70). (4) The human influence index, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and isothermality were identified as the key factors influencing the distribution of both species. Specifically, the probability of presence of both roe deer and wild boars decreased significantly with increasing isothermality, was positively correlated with NDVI, and exhibited a non-linear relationship with the human influence index (initially decreasing before increasing).

Conclusion: Regarding the temporal niche, although both species exhibited a diurnal bimodal activity patterns with high niche overlap, a significant fine-scale differentiation in peak activity—specifically, the 1-2 hour delay in the morning peak of roe deer—constitutes a key behavioral adaptation to reduce direct competition for critical resources. Spatially, suitable habitats for both species were concentrated in the central reserve, and they demonstrated similar responses to the environmental factors driving their distribution. In conclusion, this study highlights that conservation strategies for roe deer and wild boars must prioritize the central core habitat quality and address the nonlinear impacts of environmental factors and human activities on species distribution and interspecific relationships.

Background: Biodiversity conservation remains one of the most urgent priorities on the global environmental agenda. Effectively halting and reversing the ongoing loss of biodiversity constitutes a fundamental challenge for contemporary ecological governance. In order to fulfill the objectives of global sustainable development, it is essential to establish a robust and responsive global biodiversity early warning system capable of real-time monitoring and dynamic assessment of biodiversity trends. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), adopted at the fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15), outlines a strategic roadmap for the future of global biodiversity governance.

Aims: Based on the objectives articulated by the KMGBF, this study investigates the current status, principal challenges, emerging opportunities, and strategic pathways for advancing the development of a global biodiversity early warning system. Through enhanced international policy coordination and collaborative efforts, the envisioned system aspires to promote the scientific and intelligent governance of global biodiversity. It is expected to provide a rigorous scientific foundation for the formulation and execution of biodiversity conservation policies across nations, thereby making a substantive contribution to global biodiversity protection and the broader pursuit of sustainable development.

Challenges & Prospects: This study begins by underscoring the pivotal role of the KMGBF in guiding the development of a global biodiversity early warning system. Despite notable advancements in recent years, significant challenges persist, including incomplete data coverage, reliance on outdated technologies, and insufficient international cooperation. Building on the vision articulated in the KMGBF, this paper systematically outlines the foundational architecture and key components of a global biodiversity early warning system, and proposes a suite of global indicators to facilitate its implementation. Furthermore, this paper advocates the integration of multi-source data, including satellite remote sensing and ground-based camera observations, along with advanced technologies such as cloud computing and artificial intelligence. This integrated approach aims to establish a scalable and resilient global biodiversity early warning system that can support multidimensional, multilevel, and multiscale biodiversity assessments.

Background & Aim: As a complementary market tool to address the financing gap in biodiversity conservation and support the ecological value transition, biodiversity credits are emerging as an innovative mechanism that mobilizes corporate capital and participation in conservation and restoration. Biodiversity credit markets are still at an early stage, yet they are increasingly recognized by enterprises as relevant to regulatory expectations, risk management needs, brand value and social responsibility, and long-term investment potential. This paper systematically analyzes the core elements of biodiversity credit markets, including how biodiversity net gain is quantified, how value is priced, why and how enterprises participate, and examines key issues in the development of biodiversity credit markets.
Results: Biodiversity credits usually quantify biodiversity net gain through methodologies that aggregate multiple biodiversity indicators; their pricing is based on the direct and transaction costs of conservation and restoration actions rather than ecosystem asset valuation. Corporate participation is driven by regulatory and disclosure requirements, risk mitigation considerations, brand value and social license, and expectations of long-term returns. Participation pathways include direct credit purchases, co-development of conservation and restoration projects, product-credit bundling, and biodiversity-carbon combined instruments. However, challenges persist: concerns about credit misuse and offsetting, greenwashing risks, methodological uncertainty, monitoring and verification difficulties, insufficient market infrastructure, and gaps in regulatory systems and standardized guidelines for credit use and claims. These challenges collectively limit market confidence and hinder corporates’ effective participation.
Suggestions & Perspectives: Based on the identified gaps, we propose a set of recommendations for the future development of China’s biodiversity credit market, including learning from the carbon market, linking accounting methods with demands, improving market infrastructure and regulatory rules, and establishing consensus on credit claims. These measures are essential for creating a high-integrity biodiversity credit framework that supports enterprise-driven biodiversity investment and financing and contributes to biodiversity conservation outcomes.

Aim: Spatial and temporal patterns of different dimensions of biodiversity are often mismatched, with distinct underlying shaping mechanisms. Studying bird diversity patterns along multiple dimensions is thus important for a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms that maintain and regulate communities. Sichuan Province, characterized by its complex natural environments and exceptionally high avian diversity, ranks second in China in terms of wild bird species richness. However, the spatial distribution patterns of bird diversity across different dimensions and their key driving factors in the region remain unclear.
Methods: Based on survey data from 288 sites collected through stratified sampling throughout Sichuan Province from 2023 to 2024, we calculated the taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity of breeding bird communities. We used generalized linear models to analyze the relative effects of climatic, habitat, and human activity factors on each dimension of community diversity.
Results: Taxonomic diversity was primarily influenced by habitat and climatic factors. It was significantly and positively correlated with the proportions of forest, water bodies, and cropland within the plots, while significantly and negatively correlated with annual precipitation. Functional diversity was affected by climatic and habitat factors, and was positively associated with precipitation variability, the Shannon index of the land-use types, and cropland proportion, and negatively associated with mean annual temperature. Phylogenetic diversity was influenced by climate, habitat, and human activities jointly, showing a significant positive correlation with mean annual temperature, and negative correlations with forest proportion and the human footprint index.
Conclusion: This study reveals that taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity of breeding bird communities are shaped by different ecological factors, with some factors exerting consistent effects across different dimensions and others having contrasting effects. Integrating taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic perspectives provides a more comprehensive understanding of community structure and its maintenance mechanisms, and offers a scientific basis for regional bird diversity conservation.

Aims: Spatial distribution of species represents a core issue in population biology and macroecology. Commonly used metrics for quantifying species aggregation include the negative binomial distribution parameter k for quadrat data and neighborhood density indices (such as Ω proposed by Condit et al. (2000) and k_ff proposed by Wiegand et al. (2025)) for point pattern data. However, how the choice of index and its estimation uncertainty jointly affect the inference of the aggregation-abundance relationship remains unclear.

Methods: We use a spatially explicit neutral model to simulate community data, then computed the aforementioned aggregation indices along with their standard errors. Finally, we analyzed how the index selection and its estimation error influence the power-law relationship between aggregation and species abundance.

Results: (1) The three aggregation indices are strongly correlated under high aggregation intensity. Under weak aggregation, however, k remains effective in discriminating interspecific differences in aggregation, whereas the two point pattern indices lack such discriminative power. (2) Estimation errors of different indices are weakly positively correlated. The standard error of k for rare and weakly aggregated species estimated by maximum likelihood is large, consistent with simulation results. In contrast, standard errors of point pattern indices based on resampling methods are generally smaller. (3) The aggregation-abundance relationship varies depending on the chosen index and whether weighted regression is applied. For 1/k, weighted regression consistently recovers the theoretical exponent of -1 predicted by neutral theory, whereas unweighted regression yields shallower slopes, especially in communities with weak aggregation. The exponents for the two point pattern indices vary with the mean aggregation intensity of the community.

Conclusions: Ignoring the uncertainty in aggregation estimates can significantly bias inferences of the aggregation-abundance relationship, potentially leading to the incorrect rejection of the neutral null hypothesis (i.e., an increased risk of Type I error). The relationships derived from the two point pattern indices reflect mean community aggregation but are not suitable for directly testing neutral assembly mechanisms. We recommend using the maximum likelihood estimate of the negative binomial parameter k and its standard error to measure species aggregation from quadrat data and incorporating uncertainty into subsequent analyses. For other aggregation indices, there is a need to develop predictions of their relation with species abundance from theories such as the simple neutral case.

Background & Aims: Primates are the closest living relatives to humans. China harbors rich primate diversity, and research on this group is of great significance for biodiversity conservation and for understanding humanity itself. Chinese Primatology has boomed since the 1980s, with the establishment of a specialized academic system including the Primate Specialist Group (1989) and the China Primatological Society (2017).

Review Results: China hosted the 19th Congress of the International Primatological Society (IPS) in 2002 and became an IPS member in 2014, marking its growing international influence. Chinese primatology has evolved from basic species surveys to a comprehensive discipline integrating multiple fields, addressing global biodiversity conservation and human cognitive evolution needs. Chinese scholars have achieved pivotal progress in six key areas. In taxonomy and distribution, new species such as the white-cheeked macaque (Macaca leucogenys) and the skywalker hoolock gibbon (Hoolock tianxing) were discovered, confirming that China harbors 29 primate species from 3 families and 8 genera. Genetic and evolutionary studies, led by the Primate Genome Project, revealed the radiation evolution of macaques driven by Quaternary climate fluctuations and the hybrid origin of snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus spp.), also elucidating primate extinction mechanisms and social evolution drivers. Behavioral and physiological research uncovered the “multilevel society” of golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana), gibbons’ song coordination and path-planning behaviors, and the synergistic adaptation of primate nutritional regulation and gut microbiota. Cognitive and neuroscientific studies identified neural bases for advanced cognition and emotional processing in macaques, establishing a complete research system from disease models to cellular atlases. Conservation research built a scientific system from risk assessment to targeted intervention, achieving remarkable results such as the doubling in number of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus). Methodological innovations applied AI-based behavior recognition and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) monitoring, forming an intelligent “sky-land-sound” observation system and promoting automated and intelligent research.

Prospects: Overall, Chinese primatology has formed internationally influential research paradigms in multiple key fields. It has developed into a comprehensive interdisciplinary discipline with prominent international contributions. Future research will focus on national strategic needs such as national park construction, biosafety, and brain science. It will further integrate cross-disciplinary methods, advance basic research on primate genetics, behavior and cognition, and translate research achievements into global biodiversity conservation practices, contributing Chinese wisdom to human cognitive evolution and the harmonious coexistence of humans and nature.

Background & Aim: The plant species complex, as a central and challenging issue in taxonomic research, comprises morphologically highly similar yet genetically divergent lineages, including cryptic species, hybrids, and polyploids. The taxonomic difficulties associated with these complexes would impact accurate biodiversity assessment and effective resource management. This review aims to systematically synthesize the formation mechanisms of plant species complexes and recent advances in their morphological taxonomy. It also seeks to elucidate the conflict between morphological conservatism and genetic divergence, propose an integrative classification framework, and outline future research directions and methodological trends. The ultimate goal is to establish a foundation for understanding the mechanisms of complex formation, delimiting cryptic species, interpreting interspecific differences and evolutionary relationships, and support​ germplasm utilization and species conservation.

Progress: Research findings indicate that the formation of plant species complexes is collectively driven by natural selection, gene flow, polyploidization, and epigenetic regulation. Morphological evidence plays a crucial role in classifying plant species complexes and holds particular advantages during periods of rapid radiative evolution or under strong natural selection pressure. However, its utility is often limited by factors such as phenotypic plasticity, genomic introgression (hybridization), and niche conservatism. Although molecular evidence can compensate for some limitations of morphological data, relying solely on a single-dimensional approach remains insufficient for resolving the full complexity of evolutionary histories, including scenarios like incomplete lineage sorting or reticulate evolution. Addressing classification problems still requires taking morphological interpretation as an essential foundation. Contemporary taxonomy of plant species complexes increasingly relies on integrative methodologies that emphasize multidimensional validation combining morphological, molecular, and ecological evidence. The integration of multi-source data has become the main trend for solving the taxonomic predicament of plant species complexes.

Prospects: Future research on plant species complexes should prioritize the construction of a robust “morphology-molecular-ecology” tripartite corroboration system. This involves quantifying phenotypic variation using advanced morphometric techniques and intelligent morphological technologies, elucidating genetic differentiation through genomic phylogenomic and population genetic analyses, and assessing environmental adaptability through ecological niche models. Furthermore, developing more efficient algorithmic models and incorporating phytogeographic regional backgrounds are essential for building a dynamic classification system. Advances in the taxonomy of plant species complexes will enhance our understanding of speciation mechanisms and provide a solid theoretical foundation for precise biodiversity conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources.

Background & Aims: Under the framework of the rule of law for ecological civilization, national parks have emerged as central mechanisms for biodiversity conservation and ecological restoration in China. However, their establishment has been accompanied by increasingly frequent and complex human-wildlife conflicts, particularly affecting indigenous communities. These conflicts not only disrupt local livelihoods but also reveal underlying tensions between conservation goals and social justice. This study aims to critically examine the institutional logic and limitations of current human-wildlife conflict management within Chinese national parks. It further explores the extent to which the National Park Law and associated regulations address the rights, participation, and compensation entitlements of indigenous communities affected by such conflicts.

Method: It adopted a multidisciplinary approach combining legal analysis, institutional theory, and empirical policy review. It first conducted a doctrinal analysis of the National Park Law, related administrative regulations, and judicial interpretations to identify normative gaps in conflict management. Second, through policy document analysis and case studies from representative national parks such as Three-River-Source National Par and Giant Panda National Park, the study evaluated the practical implementation of preventive and compensatory mechanisms for managing human-wildlife conflict. Particular attention was paid to the institutional positioning of local governments, fiscal arrangements, and the procedural inclusion of indigenous populations. Finally, comparative insights were drawn from international experiences in countries with established national park systems to inform policy innovation.

Review & Results: The current mechanism is operationally expedient but structurally inadequate. Fiscal and technical constraints severely limit the implementation of effective preventive measures, while compensation schemes are often delayed, under-calculated, and administratively rigid. This institutional design disproportionately burdens indigenous communities living within or near national parks, who not only endure the direct impacts of wildlife incursions but also face restrictions on traditional land use and limited access to participatory governance. The analysis reveals that the law primarily focuses on managing wildlife behavior, rather than addressing the broader redistributional effects brought about by conservation initiatives. Moreover, the role of local communities remains largely passive, with insufficient institutional mechanisms to ensure their substantive involvement in decision-making, benefit-sharing, or legal redress.

Prospect: To achieve a more balanced integration of ecological protection and social equity under the National Park Law, a recalibration of institutional arrangements is necessary. The paper proposes a multidimensional reform strategy: the establishment of a vertically and horizontally coordinated ecological compensation framework to address human-wildlife conflict-related cost imbalances; the creation of a dynamic benefits-cost adjustment mechanism with public-private collaboration; and the strengthening of indigenous capacity through ecological knowledge training and participatory governance. Furthermore, external legal oversight, including the expansion of environmental public interest litigation, should be leveraged to safeguard the rights of indigenous communities. Ultimately, advancing the rule of law in ecological governance requires institutional innovation that aligns national conservation objectives with localized justice claims, ensuring that national parks contribute not only to environmental sustainability but also to inclusive development.

Background & Aim: Enchytraeidae is the second most species abundant family in the Annelida Clitellata. Recognized as “micro-ecosystem engineers”, soil enchytraeids play crucial regulatory roles in improving soil structure and aggregate stability, enhancing soil porosity, air permeability and water infiltration through burrowing, ingesting and mixing mineral soil particles. In addition, as key decomposers of soil organic matter, soft-bodied enchytraeids are vital drivers of nutrient cycling and forming intimate interactions with soil microorganisms, plant roots, and other soil fauna, making them inevitably involved in the complex soil food webs. This review summarizes the research progress on soil enchytraeids regarding their trophic ecology and ecological functions, and provides future research perspectives to advance the field.
Review Results: In the field of trophic ecology, the most important advances including: (1) clearly clarifying the diverse food sources of the soil enchytraeids; (2) unveiling the biological mechanisms underlying the absorption and transformation of nutritional materials in their guts; and (3) preliminarily figuring out their trophic niches. Regarding the ecological functions of soil enchytraeids, the key findings involving: (1) clearly demonstrating the engineering roles of enchytraeids in improving the soil structures; (2) preliminaryly recognizing their important dual roles in soil carbon (i.e. enhancing organic carbon mineralization, controlling labile carbon releasing and sequestration by their effects on soil microbes) and nitrogen dynamics (i.e. increasing soil organic nitrogen mineralization, controlling inorganic nitrogen releasing and transporting); and (3) basically understanding the multiple interactions of enchytraeids with soil microorganisms, other soil fauna, and plant roots.
Prospects: Although having the abovementioned key progresses in recent years, the ecological studies of the soil enchytraeids are largely overlooked in the fundamental and applied fields. To further understand the ecological functions and potential ecosystem services of the soil enchytraeids, and to apply the soil enchytraeids to practical applications and sustainable development, the interdisciplinary perspectives are needed in the future studies of enchytraeids regarding their trophic ecology and multifunctionality.

Background& Aim: With the adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, resource mobilization has been elevated to a strategic priority in global biodiversity governance. China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023-2030) explicitly sets the goal of “basically establishing a diversified investment and financing mechanism by 2030”, signaling a new stage in institutionalizing biodiversity finance. This paper aims to analyze China’s biodiversity finance system through a structured lens, drawing on policy frameworks and practical experience to examine both domestic development and international innovations.

Review Results: This study builds a framework linking policy support dimensions with financial instrument types to analyze China’s biodiversity finance system. It identifies five key policy areas, including investment and finance mechanism, taxonomy and standards system, nature-related disclosure and risk management, external cooperation mechanism, across which a mix of directive, incentive-based, and mandatory tools. Core instruments include green credit, green bonds, ecological compensation, blended finance, and asset-based financing. Further, this paper examines the logic and practical challenges of three innovative mechanisms—blended finance, biodiversity-linked mechanisms, and market-based ecological compensation—in both domestic and international contexts, and offers diversified financing pathways and policy insights for supporting biodiversity.

Recommendations: Based on the challenges above, the paper proposes several policy recommendations: establish biodiversity investment and financing support catalog along with financial standards to reduce identification costs for investors, promote gross ecosystem product (GEP) and ecological performance-based financial products, and innovate models such as environmental asset collateral, blended finance, and ecological-oriented development (EOD) model to strengthen support for biodiversity projects, and strengthen biodiversity-related risk management and information disclosure to enhance private sector investment confidence. Through these measures, the aim is to establish stable and sustainable financial flows, promoting biodiversity mainstreaming in economic, policy, and social domains.

Aims: The Nanling Mountains serve as a key ecological corridor and transition zone between the mid- and south-subtropical regions of China. Both the tropical and temperate floras converge in this region, and therefore it is the northern or southern distributional boundaries for many plant species.

Methods: Based on 16 1-ha forest dynamics monitoring plots across the Guangdong Nanling National Nature Reserve, encompassing all major vegetation types throughout the region, we analyzed the species composition, floristic characteristics, size distribution, and spatial distribution of woody plants with ≥ 1 cm DBH (diameter at breast height).

Results A total of 75,141 individual trees and shrubs (100,923 stems, including branches) were recorded across the 16 plots, representing 582 species, 220 genera, and 78 families. Among these, 137 tropical genera (398 species; 62% of total genera, 68% of total species), 80 temperate genera (174 species; 36% of total genera, 30% of total species), and 3 cosmopolitan genera (10 species) were identified. The plot with the highest species richness contained 229 species, whereas the least diverse plot contained only 87 species. Dominant species in the tree layer varied among plots, effectively reflecting the primary forest types in the Nanling Mountains. Overall, all the plots exhibited stable inverse J-shaped size distributions for all the individuals together, but the dominant species in each plot and the same species among the plots varied considerably in size distribution. The results of species-area curves revealed substantial differences in species accumulation rates and saturation thresholds among the 16 plots. On average, sampling a 400 m² plot captured only 30% of the total species richness, whereas 90% species coverage was achieved at a plot size of 6,600 m². Spatial distribution patterns varied significantly across vegetation types and diameter classes. Dominant species exhibited distinct habitat preferences, and the same species (e.g., Schima superba and Pinus massoniana) displayed divergent spatial patterns across plots.

Conclusion: This study reveals substantial variation in plant species composition, community structure, and species’ spatial distributions among distinct vegetation types in the Nanling Mountains. These findings provide a foundation for long-term biodiversity monitoring in subtropical montane forests and support the development of the national park system.