Background: Biodiversity conservation remains one of the most urgent priorities on the global environmental agenda. Effectively halting and reversing the ongoing loss of biodiversity constitutes a fundamental challenge for contemporary ecological governance. In order to fulfill the objectives of global sustainable development, it is essential to establish a robust and responsive global biodiversity early warning system capable of real-time monitoring and dynamic assessment of biodiversity trends. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), adopted at the fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15), outlines a strategic roadmap for the future of global biodiversity governance. 

Aims: Based on the objectives articulated by the KMGBF, this study investigates the current status, principal challenges, emerging opportunities, and strategic pathways for advancing the development of a global biodiversity early warning system. Through enhanced international policy coordination and collaborative efforts, the envisioned system aspires to promote the scientific and intelligent governance of global biodiversity. It is expected to provide a rigorous scientific foundation for the formulation and execution of biodiversity conservation policies across nations, thereby making a substantive contribution to global biodiversity protection and the broader pursuit of sustainable development. 

Problems & Prospects: This study begins by underscoring the pivotal role of the KMGBF in guiding the development of a global biodiversity early warning system. Despite notable advancements in recent years, significant challenges persist, including incomplete data coverage, reliance on outdated technologies, and insufficient international cooperation. Building on the vision articulated in the KMGBF, this paper systematically outlines the foundational architecture and key components of a global biodiversity early warning system, and proposes a suite of global indicators to facilitate its implementation. Furthermore, this paper advocates the integration of multi-source data, including satellite remote sensing and ground-based camera observations, along with advanced technologies such as cloud computing and artificial intelligence. This integrated approach aims to establish a scalable and resilient global biodiversity early warning system that can support multidimensional, multilevel, and multiscale biodiversity assessments.

Background & Aim: The establishment of protected area systems constitutes the principal form of in situ biodiversity conservation. Robust management investment is crucial for ensuring effective ecological conservation outcomes. In this context, Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) sets forth an ambitious goal: achieve effective conservation and management coverage of 30% of the world’s areas by 2030. Assessing the management effectiveness of in situ conservation measures under this target is pivotal for its successful global implementation. To gain a comprehensive understanding of global progress in assessing management effectiveness, this paper reviews the development context of protected area management effectiveness assessment (PAME) within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Drawing on insights from international PAME practices, the paper aims to promote the standardization of PAME in China and enhance the mainstreaming of the concept. Ultimately, it seeks to provide a scientific reference for evaluating the management effectiveness of in situ conservation in China’s implementation of GBF Target 3. 

Progress: The shift in the management assessment paradigm stems on the one hand from changes in conservation philosophy, and on the other hand from the progress of evaluation technology. The development of PAME can be divided into four phases: the initial exploratory phase (1980–2000), the systematization phase (2000–2010), the equity-integrated effectiveness assessment phase (2010–2020), and the post-2020 phase, which is characterized by dynamic, outcome-oriented standards. As global in situ conservation policies advance, the concept of effectiveness evolves from focusing solely on internal management processes to an outcome-oriented assessment that also considers the interests of surrounding communities and Indigenous Peoples. Equitable governance is a prerequisite for effective management, while conservation outcomes are the key indicators of management effectiveness. PAME has placed growing emphasis on measurable conservation outcomes, while explicitly integrating governance fairness into its evaluation framework. The IUCN Green List Standard integrates long-term ecological monitoring with adaptive management and clearly differentiates between management and governance components. Since 2020, this standard has become a key benchmark for evaluating in situ conservation effectiveness and a guiding reference for updating or developing international assessment tools. 

Prospects: Building on international PAME practices and considering current challenges in China, this study proposes the construction of a multi-level, localized PAME framework based on four dimensions—spatial planning, management effectiveness, governance effectiveness, and conservation outcomes—and introduces a phased assessment procedure, aiming to promote the standardization of PAME for protected areas in China. Simultaneously, it is recommended that protected area PAME be integrated into conservation management practice to mainstream the concept of management effectiveness assessment. Given the current lack of systematic understanding of the causal mechanisms affecting protected area management effectiveness, we highlight the need to strengthen quantitative research, identify key determinants of management performance, and explore evidence-based decision-making mechanisms for in situ conservation, thereby contributing to global biodiversity conservation efforts.

Background & Aims: In response to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023‒2030) (China NBSAP) was released in January 2024, aiming to guide the overall layout of biodiversity conservation in China and provide guidance for local efforts in biodiversity conservation. The release of China NBSAP has spurred the formulation and update of a new round of local biodiversity strategies and action plans (LBSAPs). This paper collects and summarizes the new round of LBSAPs released by 17 provinces (municipalities, autonomous regions) in China after the release of China NBSAP. The response of LBSAPs to China NBSAP was analyzed from three aspects: protection goals, priority actions, and guarantee mechanisms. The compatibility between local biodiversity governance and national actions was sorted out. The differences and influencing factors in target setting among different regions and provinces in China were studied. The bottlenecks in multi-level governance were revealed and the optimization paths were proposed. 

Results: The provincial LBSAPs are closely aligned with the goals, action directions and guarantee mechanisms of China NBSAP. Based on the framework of the China NBSAP, each province has proposed local goals, actions, and guarantee measures in accordance with local conditions. The characteristics of biodiversity governance show regional differences. However, most local biodiversity protection efforts still face difficulties such as unclear target paths, poor departmental coordination, insufficient funds, weak technological capabilities and insufficient public participation. 

Recommendations: The state should promote and guide localities to scientifically formulate and implement LBSAPs, and local governments urgently need to strengthen overall coordination, optimize fund allocation, enhance scientific and technological capabilities, and promote the collaborative efforts of the central and local governments in biodiversity governance to help achieve the goals of China NBSAP.

Background & Aim: With the adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, resource mobilization has been elevated to a strategic priority in global biodiversity governance. China’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030) explicitly sets the goal of “basically establishing a diversified investment and financing mechanism by 2030”, signaling a new stage in institutionalizing biodiversity finance. This paper aims to analyze China’s biodiversity finance system through a structured lens, drawing on policy frameworks and practical experience to examine both domestic development and international innovations. 

Review Results: This study builds a framework linking policy support dimensions with financial instrument types to analyze China’s biodiversity finance system. It identifies five key policy areas shaping a mix of directive, incentive-based, and mandatory tools. Core instruments include green credit, green bonds, ecological compensation, blended finance, and asset-based financing. The paper also examines three emerging approaches and their implementation challenges. 

Recommendations: Based on the challenges above, the paper proposes several policy recommendations: establishing biodiversity investment and financing support catalog along with financial standards to reduce identification costs for investors, promote GEP and ecological performance-based financial products, and innovate models such as environmental asset collateral, blended finance, and EOD to strengthen support for biodiversity projects, and strengthening biodiversity-related risk management and information disclosure to enhance private sector investment confidence. Through these measures, the aim is to establish stable and sustainable financial flows, promoting biodiversity mainstreaming in economic, policy, and social domains.

Background & Aim: The 16th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP16) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was held in Cali, Colombia. This meeting marked the first CBD Conference of the Parties since the  adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (referred to as the “KMGBF”). Delegates were engaged in in-depth discussions on over 20 key topics, including the implementation of the KMGBF, benefit-sharing mechanisms for digital sequence information (DSI) on genetic resources, and marine and coastal biodiversity conservation. 

Overview: This article summarizes the progress of key issues at COP16, covering the benefit-sharing mechanism for DSI, the monitoring framework of the KMGBF, resource mobilization and financial mechanisms, conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, biodiversity and climate change, as well as Article 8(j) and related provisions. 

Recommendations: Based on China’s actual experience in fulfilling its obligations under the CBD, the paper puts forward prospects for future implementation. These prospects include promoting research and management of DSI, conducting reporting based on the KMGBF’s monitoring framework, leveraging the role of the Kunming Biodiversity Fund to continue leading global ecological and environmental governance, advancing coordinated governance of biodiversity conservation, oceans, and climate, valuing the voices of diverse groups, and strengthening interministerial cooperation and the building of implementation teams.

Aims: β diversity is a key facet of biodiversity, reflecting variation in species composition across space and time. Exploring the distribution patterns and ecological processes underlying β diversity helps clarify the mechanisms that maintain biodiversity, thereby informing conservation strategies. While β diversity can be partitioned into distinct components, the relative contributions of these components remain poorly understood in temperate coniferous-broadleaf mixed forests. 

Methods: This study used vegetation survey data from a 30-ha forest dynamics plot in coniferous-broadleaf mixed forests in Jiaohe, Jilin Province. The Podani decomposition method was applied to partition the Jaccard and Sørensen dissimilarity indices into species replacement and richness difference components. Additionally, the total variance of the site-by-species abundance matrix was used to quantify β diversity, which was further decomposed into species contribution to β diversity (SCBD) and local contribution to β diversity (LCBD). Relationships between SCBD and species frequency, and between LCBD and species richness, were examined using linear and quadratic regression analyses. Finally, variation partitioning was conducted to assess the relative roles of environmental filtering and dispersal limitation in shaping ecological uniqueness within the forest communities. 

Results: (1) Forest β diversity was predominantly driven by species replacement, while species richness difference contributed less. (2) SCBD showed a significant inverted U-shaped relationship with species frequency, with Carpinus cordata contributing the most and Crataegus maximowiczii the least to β diversity. (3) LCBD exhibited a significant U-shaped relationship with species richness. (4) Both environmental filtering and dispersal limitation influenced forest ecological uniqueness, with dispersal limitation exerting a stronger effect. 

Conclusion: This study reveals the spatial distribution patterns and ecological drivers of β diversity and its components in temperate coniferous-broadleaf mixed forests. The findings deepen understanding of β diversity formation mechanisms in temperate forests and provide a scientific basis for ecological restoration and biodiversity conservation of secondary forests in Northeast China.

Aims: Nitrogen (N) enrichment can reduce grassland plant diversity, while dung decomposition and nutrient release are important for maintaining plant diversity in native grassland ecosystems. Grasslands have been subjected to both atmospheric N deposition and dung inputs. However, it remains unclear how these factors affect plant richness and species–area relationship (SAR). 

Methods: In 2022, we conducted a field experiment at the Inner Mongolia Grassland Ecosystem Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences. A split–plot completely randomized design was used, with enclosure and grazing as the two main effects. Within each main effect, four treatments were applied: control, cow dung addition (Dung), N addition (N), combined cow dung and N addition (Dung + N). In August 2024, species richness was recorded at four spatial scales (1 m², 2 m², 4 m², and 8 m²). At the same time, aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) and relevant soil physicochemical indicators were measured. 

Results: We found that enclosure significantly reduced the mean plant species richness at multiple spatial scales by 18.9%. Enclosure significantly reduced the intercept of the species–area relationship (i.e., plant diversity per unit area), but did not affect the minimum area for species coexistence or the slope (i.e., spatial heterogeneity of community composition). Neither N nor dung addition significantly changed the intercept, or slope of the species–area relationship. Results from the structural equation model showed that enclosure had a positive effect on the slope by lowering soil pH. It also exerted a negative effect on the intercept by increasing aboveground net primary productivity. Dung addition had a negatively affected on both the slope and intercept of the species–area relationship by increasing soil ammonium nitrogen content. 

Conclusions: Our findings suggest that dung inputs in typical steppe ecosystems can facilitate species coexistence through moderate nutrient supplementation, highlighting the importance of evaluating the ecological, productive, and livelihood benefits of dung coverage under the premise of grass–livestock balance.

Aims: In this study, we aimed to test whether the responses of the community diversity and composition of alpine meadows were influenced by elevations and soil nutrient availability. 

Methods: Based on a warming (OTCs) and nutrient addition (nitrogen and phosphorus) experiment across elevations (3,200 m, 3,700 m, 4,050 m), plant community surveys were conducted from 2021 to 2024, and alpha (α) and beta (β) diversity metrics and relative abundance of four functional groups were calculated. The linear mixed effects model, permutation multivariance analysis, one- and two-way ANOVAs, and Tukey’s HSD test were used to analyze the effects of warming and nutrient addition on the community α and β diversity. 

Results: (1) The effects of warming on α diversity were elevation-dependent, showing no significant effects on it at 3,200 m, and reducing it at 3,700 m, and increasing it at 4050 m. Meanwhile, nutrients addition also markedly influenced the responses of α diversity to warming by changing species richness and/or relative abundance of different functional groups. Specifically, under nutrient addition conditions, warming reduced the richness of legumes and grasses at 3,200 m, grasses, sedges, and forbs at 3,700 m, while increased the richness and relative abundance of grasses and forbs at 4,050 m. (2) Similarly, the responses of β diversity to warming were affected by elevations, and nutrients addition regulated such responses. For instance, warming significantly reduced β diversity at 4,050 m; by contrast, under nutrient addition conditions, warming reduced it at 3,700 m and increased it at 4,050 m, respectively. 

Conclusion: Our findings suggest that elevations and soil nutrients strongly regulate the responses of alpine meadow diversity to warming through species richness and/or the relative abundance of four functional groups. Therefore, to more accurately predict the biodiversity response to global warming in the future, it is essential to consider the baseline environmental conditions (e.g., soil moisture and nutrients).

Aims: Invasive plants accounted for a large proportion of urban spontaneous vegetation and was an unavoidable issue in the construction of spontaneous plant landscapes. Studying the impact of invasive plants was of great significance for the application of spontaneous vegetation plant landscaping that supports urban biodiversity. 

Methods: Stratified random sampling survey was conducted in this study on spontaneous vegetation in the herb layer of Hangzhou Xixi National Wetland Park among different habitats. The status quo of invasive plants and their effects on spontaneous vegetation community were analyzed, and the management strategies of invasive plants in Xixi wetland were discussed. 

Results: (1) A total of 25 invasive plant species were recorded in the investigation, accounting for approximately 10.7% of the total number of spontaneous plant species. Among them, the most dominant ones were Alternanthera philoxeroides and Erigeron annuus. (2) Among the five types of habitats, the grassland habitat had the highest number of invasive plant species, occurrence frequency, and importance value. (3) Invasive plants significantly reduced the number of native plant species; significantly decreased the species diversity, and significantly affected the structure of spontaneous vegetation communities. (4) In the management of invasive plants in Xixi Wetland, particular attention should be paid to dominant invasive species such as Alternanthera philoxeroides and Erigeron annuus. 

Conclusion: Differential management measures should be formulated based on the differences between habitats and the types of multi-species invasions. This study provides a reference for the construction and management of spontaneous vegetation landscapes.

Aims: The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau is the largest and highest plateau in the world, expanding across China, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Myanmar, with majority of its area in China. Its complex terrain and diverse climate conditions have nurtured a rich and unique biota, making it one of the global hotspots for biodiversity research and conservation. This study focuses on the herpetofauna diversity from the Chinese part of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, aiming to compile an annotated checklist of amphibians and reptiles of the region and analyze their distribution patterns for future taxonomic and conservation works. 

Methods: Following Zhang et al. (2021a), we clarified the scope of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau within China, covering 220 county-level administrative units in six provinces/ autonomous regions. Based on this preset geographic area, we extracted data on herpetofauna diversity and their distribution from comprehensive literature review and supplemented their distribution data with our new field records. With the checklist, we further incorporated additional information including their endemic status, conservation status, and national protection status. Finally, we analyzed the county-level spatial distribution patterns of amphibians and reptiles separately, focusing on the total species richness, endemic species, threatened species (CR, EN, VU), assessment-pending species (DD, NE), and species newly discovered. 

Results: As of December 31, 2024, the amphibian fauna of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau comprised of 151 species in 39 genera, 12 families, and two orders (Caudata: 10 species in three genera and three families; Anura: 141 species in 36 genera and nine families), representing 22.0% of China's total amphibian species. On the other hand, the reptile fauna of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau includes 206 species in 62 genera, 19 families, and two orders (Testudines: one species in one genus and one family; Squamata: 96 species in 24 genera and 6 families for Lacertilia, 109 species in 37 genera and 12 families for Serpentes), representing 30.3% of China's total reptile species. Among them, 64 species of amphibian and 72 species of reptile species are endemic to the region. Notably, over a quarter of the herpetofauna species of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau were either described or newly recorded within the past decade (2015-2024). According to China’s Red List of Biodiversity, 22.5% and 11.7% of the amphibians and reptiles from the region, respectively, are classified as threatened, while 42.4% and 43.7% of them respectively lack effective conservation assessments. Analysis of county-level distribution patterns reveals a clear spatial heterogeneity in herpetofauna composition across the region. Three distinct biodiversity hotspots emerge, including southeastern Xizang, northwestern Yunnan, and western Sichuan, and Medog County stands out with the highest species richness, endemism and number of new species/new records discovered among all county-level administrative regions. 

Conclusion: Characterized by both a rich species diversity and a high level of endemism, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau possesses exceptional conservation value. Southeastern Xizang, western Sichuan, and northwestern Yunnan were identified as priority regions for continuous field surveys and taxonomic studies in the future. The lack of both conservation assessments and basic natural history data that support conservation assessments would prevent effective conservation of the herpetofauna from Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, and such data gaps should be filled urgently. Future conservation strategies must address escalating threats including habitat loss, overexploitation, and climate-driven environmental changes.

Aims: Understanding the spatial distribution patterns and population dynamics of species within a region is crucial for developing scientifically sound conservation strategies. Urban biodiversity serves as a vital foundation for urban ecosystem productivity and stability, providing diverse ecosystem services. However, rapid urbanization continues to transform natural landscapes and fragment wildlife habitats. As a rapidly developing city, Hangzhou represents an important case for examining urban ecological change, making a thorough assessment of its current biodiversity status particularly meaningful. 

Methods: Based on infrared camera monitoring data covering the entire area of Hangzhou (with a total of 1,224 cameras deployed and 401,600 effective camera-days), we systematically analyzed: (1) spatial distribution patterns of species within the region, with a focus on rare and endangered species; (2) estimated population densities using the random encounter model and evaluated ecological factors influencing habitat use via occupancy modeling; (3) effectiveness of the current conservation system in protecting species; and (4) identification of priority conservation areas for rare species in Hangzhou using the Zonation software. 

Results: The results showed that: (1) A total of 147 species were recorded, comprising 30 mammal species (7 orders, 18 families) and 117 bird species (11 orders, 36 families). The most frequently observed mammals were Reeves’s muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), Chinese ferret-badger (Melogale moschata), and hog badger (Arctonyx collaris), while the silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) was the dominant bird species. (2) Species diversity exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with Lin’an and Chun’an regions hosting major distribution areas for key protected species. Rare species such as the black muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons) and Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii) were concentrated in these regions, whereas the sika deer (Cervus nippon) was found only in protected areas of Lin’an. Chun’an supported an ecologically significant population of leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), while Yuhang was characterized by the presence of peri-urban adapted carnivores such as raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and Asian badger (Meles leucurus). (3) For widely distributed species, elevation emerged as a major factor influencing their distribution in Hangzhou. Among the 16 species analyzed, nine exhibited significant elevational effects. Specifically, elevation played a decisive role in the distribution of Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura), leopard cat, raccoon dog, and silver pheasant, with higher occupancy probabilities observed at higher elevations (P < 0.05). (4) Systematic spatial prioritization identified a total priority conservation area of 5,068.85 km². Within the top 30% priority zones, 54.33% of the existing protected areas are located, conserving 20.74% of the key priority regions. The national-level protection system—comprising Tianmushan National Nature Reserve, Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, and Fuchun River–Xin’an River National Scenic Area—contributes 94.25% of the protected areas within these high-priority zones. Significant conservation gaps were identified in the Qianligang Mountains of Chun’an, the Xianghu area in Xiaoshan, Daoshi and Qingliangfeng towns in Lin’an, as well as the mountainous regions of Baijiang town in Tonglu. 

Conclusion: These findings provide a scientific basis for optimizing Hangzhou’s biodiversity conservation network and improving its protected area system, providing critical guidance for conservation management, particularly in key regions such as Lin’an and Chun’an.

Aims: Species spatial association networks are crucial for understanding community structure, revealing interspecific ecological relationships, and elucidating species coexistence mechanisms. The yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula), a representative medium-sized carnivore on the northern slope of the Qinling Mountains, exerts a significant impact on the population structure of other animals and vegetation resource allocation. This study investigates its interspecific associations with ground-dwelling birds and mammals in this ecologically complex region. 

Methods: We conducted interspecific association analysis using data from 83 infrared camera-traps deployed on the northern slope of the Qinling Mountains’ main ridge during 2019–2024, and further constructed an association network between the yellow-throated marten and sympatric ground-dwelling birds and mammals in this area. 

Results: (1) Among 29 ground-dwelling species (belonging to 6 orders and 13 families) captured by the cameras, the yellow-throated marten showed significant positive spatial associations with 14 species. It exhibited commensal ecological relationships with four species, namely wild boar (Sus scrofa), Reeves’s muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), Chinese takin (Budorcas tibetana), and tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), while displaying symmetric ecological relationships with the remaining 10 species. (2) The yellow-throated marten contributed the second-highest to community stability, surpassed only by the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Fourteen species, including the golden snub-nosed monkey, tufted deer, and Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus), were identified as core network species, whereas nine species (e.g., Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii), and masked palm squirrel (Tamiops swinhoei)) were peripheral. The yellow-throated marten is one of the most active species in the network. Particularly in the Qinling forest ecosystem where large carnivores are scarce, it plays a vital role in maintaining community stability. 

Conclusion: This study highlights the yellow-throated marten’s ecological significance and underscores the need for targeted conservation strategies to preserve interspecific interactions and community stability in the northern Qinling Mountains.

Aims: Phyllosphere microorganisms play a crucial role in host plant health, adaptability, and ecosystem stability. However, research on the diversity characteristics and driving mechanisms of phyllosphere microbial communities in temperate desert shrubs remains limited. 

Methods: This study focused on three typical desert shrubs in the Gurbantunggut Desert [Calligonum leucocladum, Ephedra przewalskii, and Haloxylon persicum]. Using 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology, combined with PCoA analysis, redundancy analysis, and null models, we systematically examined the diversity characteristics of phyllosphere bacterial communities and the relative contributions of deterministic and stochastic processes to their assembly. 

Results: The results showed that both host plant identity and geographic location significantly influenced the diversity and structure of phyllosphere bacterial communities (P < 0.05), with host identity explaining a substantially higher proportion of the variance (R² = 0.766) compared to geographic location (R² = 0.046). The independent contribution of plant functional traits to the variation in phyllosphere bacterial community structure (9.39%–47.45%) was far greater than that of climatic factors (0%–0.38%) and soil properties (1.23%–6.21%). Stochastic processes (75.53%–95.24%) dominated the assembly of phyllosphere bacterial communities, with ecological drift (60.01%–91.43%) being the core driving force. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed tightly connected network structures and significant modularity features in the phyllosphere bacterial communities of different desert shrubs. 

Conclusion: This study elucidates the diversity characteristics and assembly mechanisms of phyllosphere bacterial communities in arid desert shrubs, highlighting the key role of host functional traits, and provides theoretical foundations and practical guidance for adaptive management strategies of desert ecosystems under global climate change.

Aims: In the context of global biodiversity facing threats, protecting the genetic diversity of wildlife is of critical importance for maintaining ecological balance and enhancing the adaptive capacity of ecosystems. 

Methods: This study took red deer in the Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve as the research object, using non-invasive sampling methods to collect fecal samples, and analyzed their genetic diversity and genetic structure based on microsatellite and mitochondrial markers (CYTB, D-LOOP). 

Results: The results showed that the overall observed heterozygosity (Ho) for microsatellites was 0.662, the expected heterozygosity (He) was 0.777, the polymorphic information content (PIC) was 0.712, and the inbreeding coefficient (Fis) was 0.165, indicating a deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The haplotype diversity (Hd) of mitochondrial markers CYTB and D-LOOP was 0.447 and 0.605, respectively, and the nucleotide diversity (Pi) was 0.00463 and 0.00334, respectively. Compared to other subspecies of red deer, the genetic diversity of red deer in Ebinur Lake National Park is moderately high. No bottleneck effect has occurred, and a certain degree of inbreeding is present. Microsatellite structure analysis and principal coordinate analysis indicate that red deer in Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve form two distinct clusters, suggesting genetic differentiation has occurred.Phylogenetic and genetic distance analysis suggests that the red deer in the Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve are closely related to the Tianshan red deer and the Altai red deer. 

Conclusion: As one of the large ungulate species within the reserve, its genetic diversity is of significant importance for maintaining the ecosystem. Therefore, to preserve the genetic diversity of the red deer in the Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve, it is recommended to strengthen the protection of red deer habitats, establish ecological corridors to facilitate gene exchange, and prevent inbreeding.

Aims: Changes in forest types resulting from artificial plantations significantly influence the structure and function of soil animal communities. Collembola constitute a crucial decomposer group within soil ecosystems. Given the substantial variation in body size among Collembola species and the non-linear relationships between body size, body mass, and metabolic rate within Collembola, the main aim of the present study is to evaluate the (dis)similarities in the effects of forest type changes and the physicochemical properties of litterfall on the ‘stock’ functions (density and biomass) and ‘flow’ functions (metabolic rate) of soil Collembola. 

Methods: In this study, five replicate plots were established in each of three forest types—natural secondary Quercus liaotungensis forests, 60-year-old artificially planted Larix principis rupprechtii plantations, and Pinus tabuliformis plantations. Soil Collembola samples were extracted and identified to morphospecies. Mean body length was measured for each morphospecies, and was then converted to body mass and metabolic rates. The effects of forest type and litter biomass and nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations on the total density, biomass, and metabolic rate, as well as the community weighted means (CWMs) of body length, body mass, and metabolic rate of Collembola were evaluated. 

Results: The results showed that (1) forest type did not significantly affect the total density, total biomass, or total metabolic rate of Collembola communities. However, the density structure, biomass structure, and metabolic structure of Collembola communities in pine plantations differed significantly from those in larch and oak forests; (2) nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations of leaf litters, rather than litter biomass, significantly influenced (positively correlated with) the density, biomass, and metabolic rate of Collembola class and three orders of Collembola; (3) forest type did not significantly affect the CWMs of body length, body mass, or mean metabolic rate, however, it significantly influenced the CWMs of those functions of Entomobryomorpha and Symphypleona. Furthermore, litter biomass and nitrogen/phosphorus concentrations were significantly correlated with the CWMs of body length, body mass, and metabolic rates of certain Collembola orders. 

Conclusion: The results indicate that sixty-year-old larch plantations exhibited comparable functions of Collembola, such as the structures of density, biomass, and metabolic rates, with natural oak forests on the Dongling Mountain; while pine plantations significantly altered these functions of Collembola, primarily attributable to the low-quality litter (characterized by reduced nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations). The extent to which forest type and leaf litter properties influence density, biomass, and metabolic rate, as well as the CWMs of body length, body mass, and metabolic rates of Collembola vary with Collembola orders. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that forest type and litter properties exert similar effects on the metabolic rate and biomass across three Collembola orders, whereas their impacts on the density of Collembola shows considerable difference. By analyzing differences in the effects of environmental variables on both ‘stock’ functions (e.g., density and biomass) and ‘flow’ functions (e.g., metabolic rate) at both the class and order levels of Collembola, this study provides a novel perspective for systematically investigating how environmental changes influence the ecological functions of soil animal communities.

Aim: Wildlife is a vital component of biodiversity, and its efficient monitoring through image recognition is crucial for conservation. However, the performance of wildlife image recognition models often declines due to cross-domain distribution shifts from complex environments and interference from unknown species in the target domain. 

Methods: To address these challenges, we propose an open-set domain adaptation method for wildlife images that integrates adversarial disentanglement and feature alignment. We first constructed a domain adversarial network using the ResNet50 residual network. Next, a dual optimization strategy combining center alignment and orthogonal projection was employed to enhance the discriminative power for known categories and disentangle the feature space of unknown categories. The final open-set domain adaptation recognition model was developed by integrating these components. 

Results: When trained and evaluated on datasets with 8 and 11 wildlife species, our method achieved Average-HOS values of 48.95% and 46.38%, respectively. This represents a significant performance improvement of 14.73% and 9.53% in Average-HOS compared to the best baseline methods. 

Conclusion: The collaborative optimization approach effectively addresses domain shift and unknown category interference, thereby enhancing the model’s cross-domain generalization and unknown category identification capabilities in real-world scenarios.

Aim: Since 2020, the average annual number of changes in plant names in China has accounted for about 1.5%. Although this proportion is small, the cumulative changes over time cannot be ignored. To timely integrate these plant name changes into the Catalogue of Life China, it is necessary to compile information on new taxa, new records, and name changes related to Chinese plants annually, facilitating reference for scholars. 

Methods: We collected data on newly discovered taxa and name changes for Chinese higher plants by reviewing 117 journals and related monographs. This compilation involved 416 articles from 61 journals and 5 monographs, focusing on the new taxa and nomenclatural changes of higher plants in 2024. 

Results: In 2024, China reported a total of 6 new families, 5 new genera, 284 new species (including 1 hybrid), 24 new infraspecific taxa, 35 new higher taxa (including 1 suborder, 2 new subfamilies, 15 new supertribes, 9 new tribes and 8 subtribes), 5 new sections and 1 new series in higher plants. Additionally, 531 new combinations and status (5 at supraspecific level, 507 at species level and 19 at infraspecific level) and 92 replacement names were published. At the national level, 6 new genus records, 56 new species records, and 3 new infraspecific records were documented. Furthermore, 166 names were synonymized with 109 species, 9 names were resurrected. Four species that had not been observed for many years were rediscovered, and three species distribution was excluded. Among the newly published species, there were 4 bryophytes, 21 pteridophytes (including two hybrids), 3 new gymnosperms, and 256 angiosperms (including 1 hybrid) and 24 infraspecific taxa. Detailed intergrative evidences were provided for 136 new species when described, accounting for 44% of all new species. Additionally, the conservation status of 97 new species were evaluated according to IUCN standards when published, representing 31% of all new species. Four southwestern provinces, i.e., Yunnan, Guangxi, Xizang and Sichuan, boast the highest number of species new to science, accounting for two-thirds of the total new species reported nationwide. Medog County is the richest in the number of new species and national new records among county-level administrative units, with 13 new species and 6 new records published. 

Conclusion: In 2024, China witnessed a net increase of 316 new taxa of higher plants, accounting for 0.67% of the total Chinese plant species. Additionally, 796 names of higher plants underwent changes, accounting for 1.69% of the total. These changes represented 2.36 of all Chinese plant names modified in 2024, encompassing both species additions and nomenclature treatments. Multiple indicators suggest that the number of newly published plant taxa and name changes in China have fluctuated but still remain at a comparatively high level.

Environmental changes driven by human activities are posing severe threats to global biodiversity. In conservation biology, the IUCN Red List is often used as a critical benchmark for assessing species extinction risk. However, significant gaps remain in the evaluation of extinction risks for certain taxa, such as insects. China, with its rich butterfly diversity, currently relies heavily on historical data for its Red List assessments, without incorporating projections of future survival risks. This study integrated 247,248 distribution records of 1,920 butterfly species in China, among which the current distribution records for 598 species are insufficient for modeling, and these 598 species are categorized as Data Deficient. For the 1,322 species with sufficient data, we simulated potential distribution changes from the present to 2070 using ensemble species distribution models, incorporating future climate and land-use data. By quantifying changes in distribution area and applying the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (using the A3c criteria), we systematically evaluated the threat levels to these species. The findings reveal significant differences in the threats to butterfly species across future scenarios, with the highest number of threatened species (277) under the high forcing pathway SSP5-8.5, along with an average range reduction of 55.0%. Compared to previous Red List assessments, this study newly identifies multiple species susceptible to future climate changes. It provides the first future scenario-based Red List assessment for butterflies in China, highlights the severe threats to biodiversity under high-emission pathways, identifies key groups requiring priority conservation, and offers a scientific basis for developing proactive conservation strategies.

Aims: The ancient tree biocultural micro-conservation site (ATBMS) represents an innovative conservation pathway designed to synergistically protect the biological and cultural elements of ancient trees. This paper systematically elucidates its conceptual connotation and characteristics. It clarifies its unique position and value within the global protected area system. 

Methods: Through a comprehensive review of the development history of natural protected areas, a comparative analysis of related models such as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), plant micro-reserves, and small-scale natural conservation areas, and case studies. 

Results: This research delineates the composite features of ATBMS, which centers on individual or small clusters of ancient trees while integrating their micro-habitats and cultural spaces. The core innovation of ATBMS lies in achieving fine-scale, synergistic conservation across both ecological and cultural dimensions. It addresses the gaps in OECMs regarding “cultural and fine-scale protection,” overcomes the “ecological-cultural divide” inherent in traditional small-scale protected areas, and complements small-scale natural conservation areas. Based on this, the study proposes differentiated conservation strategies tailored to various types of ancient trees (e.g., individual/clustered, natural/cultivated, urban/rural). 

Conclusion: ATBMS can provide critical habitats for local biodiversity while preserving traditional knowledge and cultural memory. It serves as an effective complement to OECMs and offers an innovative paradigm of “precise and micro-scale guardianship” for global biocultural diversity conservation. Future efforts should focus on developing robust assessment indicator systems, promoting interdisciplinary research, and improving community co-management mechanisms to establish a scientifically sound ATBMS conservation framework.

Aims: Despite the rich marine mammal resources in the Beibu Gulf, comprehensive information on their species composition and distribution remains lacking. 

Methods: Our study integrates historical records, literature, monographs, as well as verified stranding, field sighting, and bycatch data to systematically review the species composition and distribution patterns of marine mammals in this region. 

Results: The updated checklist identified 26 marine mammal species, belonging to 3 orders, 8 families, and 19 genera, including resident species such as the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) and the Indo-Pacific finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides), seasonal residents such as the Eden’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni) and the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), visitor species such as the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), and vagrant species such as the spotted seal (Phoca largha). Marine mammal species diversity in the Beibu Gulf follows a north-high-south-low gradient. Specifically, the coastal waters of Beihai, Guangxi represent a high-density area, while the nearshore waters of Fangchenggang and Qinzhou constitute medium-density distribution zones. According to historical sources, marine mammals such as the dugong formerly occupied a much broader range in the Beibu Gulf compared to their current distribution. Modern records can be divided into two phases: 1954-2000 and 2000-2025. A comparison between these phases shows that the number of recorded marine mammal species in the Beibu Gulf increased from 21 to 22. Five new species were added, including the bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) and Omura’s whale (Balaenoptera omurai), while four species, such as the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) and the sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), have not been recorded since 2000. Among the 26 marine mammal species, 10 were classified as first-class national protected wildlife, and the remaining 16 were classified as second-class. Of the total species, five (19.23%) are IUCN-listed as threatened, comprising one Endangered (EN, 3.85%) and four Vulnerable (VU, 15.38%) species. A sharp reduction in seagrass beds has led to the corresponding disappearance of the dugong from its historical habitat in Hepu, Beihai. The Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin is primarily distributed in the Dafengjiang-Nanliujiang River estuary, the Shatian (Guangxi)-Caotan (Guangdong) coastal waters, and southwestern Hainan. However, there is no consensus on its total population size. Eden’s whales aggregate around Weizhou and Xieyang Islands from December to April, and over 80 individuals have been documented there. The Indo-Pacific finless porpoise is widely distributed throughout the coastal waters of the Beibu Gulf, with a large population likely exceeding 1,000 individuals. 

Conclusion: It is recommended to strengthen baseline surveys of marine mammals, optimize the monitoring system, scientifically regulate coastal engineering projects, promote modified fishing gear and acoustic deterrent devices, establish dynamic marine protected areas, strengthen ecological restoration, implement responsible whale/dolphin- watching guidelines, and mitigate the impacts of human activities.

Background & Aim: Insects are the most diverse group of organisms. In recent years, the decline in insect diversity has drawn significant attention. There is an urgent need to facilitate the development of forest biodiversity monitoring and to promote the establishment of standardized technical systems for assessing insect diversity patterns and intelligent insect monitoring. 

Strategies: A quantitative assessment of the relationships between insect diversity and environmental factors, based on long-term monitoring at fixed sites worldwide, will help to accurately characterize patterns and drivers of insect diversity change. 

Summary: This paper reviews recent research achievements, as well as emerging technologies and methods for insect diversity monitoring within the “SITE-100” project in China. It also provides a detailed introduction to the standardization framework of “SITE-100” and highlights the key characteristics and advantages of each technology and method.

Aims: Biological resources are closely related to national economic and social development, and has key strategic value in food security, ecological security and energy security of a country. As a basic component of the ecosystem on earth, microorganisms are of great strategic significance to human’s life and the sustainable development of society. However, due to the lack of a sound system for the preservation, development and protection of strategic resources, many biological resources have been lost overseas through smuggling, entrainment and natural losses. 

Method: Referring to other evaluation systems on biological resources, the assessment method to evaluate the strategic value of microbial resources was established in this study. 

Results: Rare and endangered species, high economic value species, bio-safety species and strategic frontier species were chosen as the four aspects for strategic microbial resources, and a scoring system using the method of weighted assignment is established according to these aspects. The scoring system contains 7 different primary criteria with different weights, i.e., the weight of 25% for National conservation strategy, the weight of 15% for conservation status, population biology and economic value, and the weight of 10% for biosecurity, other value and strategic frontier. Based on the criteria, the strategic categories of 773 microbial species were assessed according to the criteria, of which 502 species were assessed as strategic microorganisms, including 440 species of fungi, 7 of oomycetes, 1 of microspore, 53 of bacteria and 1 of archaea. Besides, an online assessing platform (https://www. casbrc.org/assessment) were established with the function of scoring system for strategic microorganism and query for assessed species. 

Conclusion: The strategic assessment method and the list of strategic microbial resources were firstly established in our country, which will provide important references for the collection, preservation, management and application of strategic microbial resources in China.