Background & Aims: Primates are the closest living relatives to humans. China harbors rich primate diversity, and research on this group is of great significance for biodiversity conservation and for understanding humanity itself. Chinese Primatology has boomed since the 1980s, with the establishment of a specialized academic system including the Primate Specialist Group (1989) and the China Primatological Society (2017). 

Review Results: China hosted the 19th Congress of the International Primatological Society (IPS) in 2002 and became an IPS member in 2014, marking its growing international influence. Chinese primatology has evolved from basic species surveys to a comprehensive discipline integrating multiple fields, addressing global biodiversity conservation and human cognitive evolution needs. Chinese scholars have achieved pivotal progress in six key areas. In taxonomy and distribution, new species such as the white-cheeked macaque (Macaca leucogenys) and the skywalker hoolock gibbon (Hoolock tianxing) were discovered, confirming that China harbors 29 primate species from 4 families and 10 genera. Genetic and evolutionary studies, led by the Primate Genome Project, revealed the radiation evolution of macaques driven by Quaternary climate fluctuations and the hybrid origin of snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus spp.), also elucidating primate extinction mechanisms and social evolution drivers. Behavioral and physiological research uncovered the “multilevel society” of golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana), gibbons’ song coordination and path-planning behaviors, and the synergistic adaptation of primate nutritional regulation and gut microbiota. Cognitive and neuroscientific studies identified neural bases for advanced cognition and emotional processing in macaques, establishing a complete research system from disease models to cellular atlases. Conservation research built a scientific system from risk assessment to targeted intervention, achieving remarkable results such as the doubling in number of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus). Methodological innovations applied AI-based behavior recognition and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) monitoring, forming an intelligent “sky-land-sound” observation system and promoting automated and intelligent research. 

Prospects: Overall, Chinese primatology has formed internationally influential research paradigms in multiple key fields. It has developed into a comprehensive interdisciplinary discipline with prominent international contributions. Future research will focus on national strategic needs such as national park construction, biosafety, and brain science. It will further integrate cross-disciplinary methods, advance basic research on primate genetics, behavior and cognition, and translate research achievements into global biodiversity conservation practices, contributing Chinese wisdom to human cognitive evolution and the harmonious coexistence of humans and nature.

Aims: Gibbons were once widely distributed in China. Due to massive habitat loss, gibbon distribution range shrunk from north to south, and from east to west in China. Nowadays, they can only be found in remote areas in Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, and South Xizang. To promote research and conservation of gibbons in China, This review provided a chronological overview of the research history and major advances in the study of gibbons in China. 

Methods: The literature relevant to gibbon morphology, taxonomy and phylogeny, genetics, ecology, and conservation in China were reviewed, and the results were presented in three chronologically arranged sections. 

Results: More than 2,000 years ago, ancient Chinese people could distinguish gibbons from monkeys, and briefly described their morphology. Over the following more than 1,000 years, the ancient Chinese people’s understanding of gibbons gradually deepened, and they provided descriptions of its distribution, behavior, and coat color changes. Since 1980, with the deepening of investigations and the increase in the number of specimens collected, Chinese scholars have gradually clarified the distribution and taxonomy of gibbons in China. At this time, scholars from China and abroad began to study the behavior and ecology of gibbons in China and made initial progress. After 2000, scholars successfully habituated wild gibbons, conducted year-around observations, and continuously monitored some populations, obtaining detailed data on the behavior, ecology, social structure, and life history of various species. Meanwhile, new technologies such as infrared cameras, drones, and passive acoustic monitoring have been applied to the research and conservation of gibbons in China. This review synthesized the research progress in nine key areas: taxonomy and phylogenetics, population genetics, home range and habitat utilization, foraging behavior, communication, sleeping behavior, social organization and structure, life history and reproduction, as well as conservation. 

Conclusion: Significant progress has been made in the research and conservation of Chinese gibbons over the past 20 years. Some gibbon populations in China have shown signs of recovery. In the future, with the mainstreaming of biodiversity conservation, the research focus of gibbons in China will shift to conservation studies. In-depth research on the nutritional ecology, reproductive ecology and interspecific competition of gibbons, as well as the development and application of new population monitoring technologies, translocation of small isolated individuals, and reintroduction of captive gibbons to their historical habitat will further promote the population recovery of gibbons in China. No scientific research can do without the training of talents. It is hoped that more young people will get involved in the research and conservation of gibbons in China.

Aims: Snub-nosed monkeys are leaf-eating primates endemic mainly to China. They attract considerable public attention because of their photogenic and captivating features; they are also considered flagship species for wildlife conservation as their populations are threatened by extensive deforestation, agricultural expansion, and hunting. Furthermore, zoologists, anthropologists, and psychologists are attracted by their complex social organization—A multi-level society in which hundreds of individuals forage and move together as one cohesive band. 

Results: With their unique and easily distinguished ‘snub-nosed’ feature, snub-nosed monkeys have been recorded in historical literature since 770 BC. However, the field studies of ecology and conservation practices were only initiated after the founding of New China. Studies which help governments to protect populations had been gradually launched after reform and opening-up policy, and kept pace with international researchers till the early 21st century. With animals identifiable through provisioning, some of key studies of social behavior, such as male infanticide, female anti-infanticide strategies, allomother infant care, male cooperation, grooming networks etc., have lighted adaptive advantages and maintenance mechanisms of the multi-level society. 

Conclusion: Over the past few decades, with strong support from central and local governments, almost all populations of Chinese snub-nosed monkeys are well protected, and field studies of behavior and ecology conducted by Chinese primatologists have gradually emerged as an international leader. In the future, research should be focused on behavioral ecology for site-specific population, how snub-nosed monkeys coexist with other sympatric mammals, and cohesive forces of the multi-level society.

Background & Aim: In China, leaf monkeys are distributed across Yunnan, Xizang, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Chongqing. They comprise two genera (Semnopithecus and Trachypithecus) and seven species. Leaf monkeys have garnered significant attention from Chinese primatologists due to their distinctive morphological and digestive system characteristics, evolutionary status, and crucial role in maintaining the stability of ecosystem. All of these species are classified as National Class I Key Protected Wild Animals in China. To date, considerable research has been conducted on the white-headed langur (T. leucocephalus), François’ langur (T. francoisi), and Indochinese gray langur (T. crepusculus), while studies on the other species remain relatively scarce. This study focuses on Chinese leaf monkeys, systematically reviewing relevant research and proposing future research directions and trends. 

Review Results: This study focuses on Chinese leaf monkeys and provides a systematic review of representative research from both domestic and international perspectives. Through in-depth analysis, we reviewed the research history and research advances on Chinese leaf monkeys across several key areas including taxonomy, anatomical characteristics, ecology and behavior, genetics and evolution, population distribution and dynamics, and conservation management. Based on the review, we propose to conduct multi-dimensional and interdisciplinary researches on behavior and ecology, such as acoustic communication and nutritional ecology. More attention should be paid on the role of leaf monkeys in seed dispersal and maintaining the dynamic balance of forests, exploring the synergy between leaf monkey conservation and community development, and understanding the social service function of endangered species conservation. In the face of the difficulties in field surveys, new technologies (such as unmanned aerial vehicles equipped with infrared thermal imaging and passive acoustic technology) assisted by artificial intelligence provide a new method for the population monitoring of leaf monkeys. 

Perspective: This study aims to promote the advancement and refinement of research and conservation efforts for leaf monkeys in China, thereby providing fundamental information for the protection of the country’s rare and endangered wildlife.

Background: China is one of the countries with the richest species diversity of non-human primates. The genus Macaca, which constitutes the predominant group of extant primates in China, stands out as the most widely distributed, highly adaptable, and numerically abundant group of the Old World monkeys. A total of eight wild Macaca species have been recorded in China. These species play a pivotal role in maintaining the balance of regional ecosystems and serve as invaluable resources for research in animal behavior, social evolution, disease models, and human origins. 

Progress: With a long-standing tradition and strong scientific capacity in wild macaque research, Chinese primatologists have made significant contributions to behavioral ecology and phylogenetic evolution. The field has progressed from preliminary ecological descriptions to precise behavioral quantification, while simultaneously shifting from macro-level descriptive analysis to multi-scale, integrative investigation. These continued efforts have produced substantial results, steadily deciphering the complexities of macaque social systems. In this paper, taking Macaca thibetana, M. mulatta, and M. assamensis as examples, we reviewed the main findings on taxonomy and distribution, research history, behavioral ecology and molecular biology of wild macaques in China and the major achievements of Chinese primatologists. 

Prospects: This review provides a scientific basis for comprehensively evaluating threats to Chinese macaques and developing integrated conservation strategies.

Background: Lorises, a general term for small, arboreal, and nocturnal primates of the family Lorisidae, are primarily distributed across tropical regions of Africa and Asia. They exhibit a series of unique physiological and behavioral characteristics, such as ultrasonic communication, torpor at low temperatures, and toxin secretion. Two species, the Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) and the pygmy loris (Xanthonycticebus pygmaeus), are distributed in China. 

Method: Through a comprehensive literature review, we analyzed the current status and developmental trends of loris research globally and domestically, summarized the existing problems in loris conservation within China, and proposed targeted recommendations. 

Review results: Globally, research on lorises had shown steady growth in recent years, with hotspots focusing on functional adaptation mechanisms—such as gummivory, venom production, and torpor—as well as the conservation of threatened populations. In contrast, relevant research in China started later. From the 1980s to the present, it had evolved through three phases: foundational exploration, developmental deepening, and integrated conservation. Notably, the past decade had witnessed a marked upward trend in research output. In phylogenetics and genomics, domestic scholars had employed mitochondrial gene and whole-genome analyses to clarify the taxonomic relationship between the Bengal slow loris and the pygmy loris. These studies had also revealed adaptive evolution in genes related to metabolic regulation, muscle development, and circadian rhythms. Regarding population distribution and habitat, recent systematic surveys had preliminarily delineated the fragmented distribution patterns of the two loris species in provinces such as Yunnan and Guangxi in China. It had been found that their populations are mostly confined to the edges of nature reserves or within fragmented forest patches. In conservation biology and the application of new technologies, domestic research demonstrated interdisciplinary integration. Gut microbiome studies had uncovered the critical influence of captive environments and diet on loris health, providing a basis for optimizing nutritional management of rescued individuals. Artificial intelligence had been applied for the first time in facial recognition, posture analysis, and stereotypic behavior detection in lorises, enabling efficient, non-invasive individual management and welfare assessment. In terms of reintroduction and rewilding research, preliminary protocols had been established for rehabilitating the locomotor abilities of captive Bengal slow lorises. Radio-tracking technology had been utilized to conduct initial monitoring of post-release home ranges and habitat selection, offering important references for scientifically informed reintroduction practices. 

Perspectives: Despite these advances in multiple areas, loris conservation in China still faces severe challenges. Illegal pet trade, habitat loss and fragmentation, and hunting for traditional medicine constitute major threats. Current conservation efforts are hampered by insufficient baseline data, non-standardized rescue and captive management protocols, and the high cost and low efficiency of field monitoring. To effectively promote loris conservation in the future, it is essential to further integrate interdisciplinary research approaches and systematically conduct population surveys and genetic diversity assessments. Technical guidelines for rescue, rewilding, and reintroduction should be improved. Simultaneously, efforts must be strengthened in law enforcement, community co-management, and international cooperation, alongside enhancing public awareness of conservation. This is a systematic project requiring the joint advancement of legal, administrative, scientific research, and community involvement efforts, and its successful implementation will also provide important insights for the conservation of other endangered arboreal primates.

Aims: The Nanling Mountains serve as a key ecological corridor and transition zone between the mid- and south-subtropical regions of China. Both the tropical and temperate floras converge in this region, and therefore it is the northern or southern distributional boundaries for many plant species. 

Methods: Based on 16 1-ha forest dynamics monitoring plots across the Guangdong Nanling National Nature Reserve, encompassing all major vegetation types throughout the region, we analyzed the species composition, floristic characteristics, size distribution, and spatial distribution of woody plants with ≥ 1 cm DBH (diameter at breast height). 

Results: A total of 75,141 individual trees and shrubs (100,923 stems, including branches) were recorded across the 16 plots, representing 582 species, 220 genera, and 78 families. Among these, 137 tropical genera (398 species; 62% of total genera, 68% of total species), 80 temperate genera (174 species; 36% of total genera, 30% of total species), and 3 cosmopolitan genera (10 species) were identified. The plot with the highest species richness contained 229 species, whereas the least diverse plot contained only 87 species. Dominant species in the tree layer varied among plots, effectively reflecting the primary forest types in the Nanling Mountains. Overall, all the plots exhibited stable inverse J-shaped size distributions for all the individuals together, but the dominant species in each plot and the same species among the plots varied considerably in size distribution. The results of species-area curves revealed substantial differences in species accumulation rates and saturation thresholds among the 16 plots. On average, sampling a 400 m² plot captured only 30% of the total species richness, whereas 90% species coverage was achieved at a plot size of 6,600 m². Spatial distribution patterns varied significantly across vegetation types and diameter classes. Dominant species exhibited distinct habitat preferences, and the same species (e.g., Schima superba and Pinus massoniana) displayed divergent spatial patterns across plots. 

Conclusion: This study reveals substantial variation in plant species composition, community structure, and species’ spatial distributions among distinct vegetation types in the Nanling Mountains. These findings provide a foundation for long-term biodiversity monitoring in subtropical montane forests and support the development of the national park system.

Aims: The variation of species distribution ranges along environmental gradients has long been an important topic in macroecology and biogeography. Rapoport’s rule was initially proposed as a hypothesis concerning the relationship between the latitudinal position of species distributions and their latitudinal range size. In 1996, Stevens provided a broad definition of Rapoport’s rule, stating that the geographic range size of species gradually increases with the rise of a biogeographic gradient (such as latitude, elevation, water depth, etc.). Currently, there is relatively limited research examining the applicability of Rapoport’s rule to latitudinal range breadth of Chinese birds, particularly in terms of comparisons across different taxonomic categories and traits. 

Methods: We used distribution and trait data of Chinese birds, and applied four commonly used methods to test whether the latitudinal patterns of species range size of Chinese birds support Rapoport’s rule across three dimensions: taxonomic categories, feeding habits and body mass. 

Results: The results showed that: (1) At different taxonomic levels (family, genus and species), higher taxonomic levels exhibited stronger support for Rapoport’s rule (the R² values for Stevens’s method, Pagel’s method and Cross-species method were all greater than 0.5). (2) Among different feeding habits, species range size variation of herbivorous birds exhibited the least support for Rapoport’s rule (Cross-species method: R² = 0.24). (3) Under the criteria of different body mass, small-bodied birds showed the strongest support for Rapoport’s rule (Cross-species method: R² = 0.42). 

Conclusion: This study found that birds with different dimensions show varying applicability to Rapoport’s rule. The stronger applicability of small-bodied birds to Rapoport’s rule may be due to their weaker competitive abilities, rapid growth rates and better adaptability to changing environment; the lower applicability of herbivorous birds may be related to their correlation with the distribution of plant species. This study discussed the potential reasons for these differences, which helps to understand the formation and maintenance of biodiversity distribution patterns at a macro scale.

Aim: One main goal of eco-city development is to improve urban biodiversity. However, it is often difficult to determine how it may influence long-term biodiversity patterns, due to the lack of historical benchmark data. Here, we followed up on a study in urban areas of Nanchong during 2002–2004 by replicating the historical survey methods, to examine changes in the breeding bird community, accounting for nesting and habitat types. 

Methods: From late February to early July 2023, we conducted five round of repeated investigation on the numbers of breeding bird species and nests using point counts in 14 patch green spaces and line transects in 22 roadside green spaces. We compiled an annual dataset based on the recorded species and nests, and then compared it with the historical data. 

Results: We recorded a total of 28 breeding bird species and 1,599 nests (1,451 nests of 17 canopy-nesting species, 87 nests of 6 ground/shrub-nesting species, 31 nests of 4 tree-cavity-nesting species, and 30 nests of 1 artificial-building- nesting species). Compared with the historical data, the total number of breeding species increased by 1, but the average numbers of species and nests across sampling sites decreased by 1.3 (21.4%, P = 0.025) and 90.4 (67.1%, P < 0.001), respectively; the breeding bird community was affected by the interaction of nesting type and habitat type, where species number, nest number and/or Shannon-Wiener diversity index of canopy-nesting birds, ground/shrub-nesting birds and artificial-building-nesting birds showed a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in either patch green spaces or roadside green spaces. In addition, the order of species dominance changed significantly, with two ground/shrub-nesting species and one cave-nesting species that ranked in the top five in the first survey being replaced by canopy-nesting species. 

Conclusion: Over the past two decades of eco-city development in Nanchong, breeding birds have not widely obtained positive ecological benefits, resulting in significant changes in their community composition at the local scale. We recommend that the planning and development of urban green spaces take into account the needs of diverse ecological groups to more comprehensively enhance the ecological benefits of urban construction. This approach will help ensure sustainable biodiversity and the provision of ecological services.

Aim: This study explored the diversity and ecological mechanisms of the fungal communities in different compartments of Tetraena mongolica. 

Methods: Leaf, root and soil samples were collected from T. mongolica, and Illumina high-throughput sequencing targeting the fungal ITS1 region was employed to analyze fungal diversity and composition. Additionally, preference analysis and LEfSe analysis were adopted to detect the biomarker fungi for each plant compartment, and the neutral community model (NCM), modified stochasticity ratio (MST) and infer community assembly mechanisms by phylogenetic-bin-based null model analysis (iCAMP) approaches were used to examine the ecological processes driving fungal communities. 

Results: A total of 752 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified across five plant compartments. Significant differences in fungal diversity and composition were observed among compartments, with niche-preferential OTUs and biomarker taxa specific to each compartment. Fungal diversity decreased progressively from the rhizosphere soil to root and then leaf. Epiphytic samples of roots and leaves harbored higher fungal diversity than endophytic samples. Integrated analyses using the NCM, MST, and iCAMP revealed that stochastic processes, particularly the dispersal limitation and ecological drift, dominated fungal community assembly. Furthermore, the relative importance of these ecological processes varied across different plant compartments. 

Conclusion: This research reveals, for the first time, the community diversity and community assembly mechanisms of fungi associated with the endangered relict plant T. mongolica, and provides a scientific basis and practical guidance for conserving rare relict plants.

Aims: The frequency of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the Bohai Sea and the North Yellow Sea has been increasing continuously in the context of coastal eutrophication and climate change. Dinoflagellate cysts are considered a potential seed bank and play a key role in the occurrence of HABs. This study aimed to investigate the diversity, distribution patterns, and environmental factors of harmful dinoflagellate cysts in the Bohai Sea and the North Yellow Sea, and to assess the potential risk of HABs in these regions. 

Methods: A DNA metabarcoding approach was applied, targeting the small subunit ribosomal (18S V4) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) to investigate the diversity and distribution of harmful dinoflagellate cyst assemblages in surface sediments from the Bohai Sea and the North Yellow Sea in May 2023. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to assess the correlations between cyst assemblages and environmental factors. 

Results: The environmental DNA (eDNA) information revealed 38 potentially harmful dinoflagellate cyst species, including 5 species not previously known to produce dinoflagellate cysts, and 8 newly recorded dinoflagellate cysts species of the Bohai Sea and the North Yellow Sea. Among them, Azadinium spinosum, Gymnodinium nolleri and Alexandrium fragae were detected for the first time in sediment samples from the coastal waters of China. Alpha diversity analysis revealed a clear decreasing trend in species richness from the Bohai Sea, through the Bohai Strait, to the central North Yellow Sea, and this trend was positively correlated with the water temperature gradient. CCA result indicated that the abundance and distribution of dominant harmful dinoflagellate cysts in the two seas were influenced to varying degrees by environmental factors (temperature, salinity, water depth, dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) and N/P), with temperature being the main explanatory variable. Temperature, in combination with the N/P and DIN, affected and regulated the abundance and distribution of most coastal-estuarine species, resulting in higher detection rates and/or abundances in the warm and eutrophic southwestern Bohai Sea. Low temperature, high salinity, and low nutrient levels were key factors contributing to the dominance of A. catenella cysts in the North Yellow Sea, particularly around the central cold-water mass. 

Conclusion: This study provides crucial information on the diversity and distribution patterns of harmful dinoflagellate cysts in the whole Bohai Sea and the North Yellow Sea in spring. The southwestern Bohai Sea remains a high-risk area for HABs due to both established toxic and harmful species and emerging potential risks, such as HABs-forming, Lepidodinium chlorophorum, whereas the North Yellow Sea faces elevated risks from the widespread high relative abundance of A. catenella. These findings demonstrate that molecular techniques are a powerful tool for monitoring harmful dinoflagellate cysts, underscoring the need for their use in early warning of HABs and for protecting marine aquaculture from blooms.

Background & Aims: The rapid development of the coastal zones poses a serious challenge to global marine biodiversity, highlighting the urgent need for large-scale and long-term quantitative assessments of habitat changes for key species. Using the Chinese white dolphin (Sousa chinensis) as a key indicator species, this study integrates nearly three decades of satellite remote sensing and socioeconomic data to systematically analyze the spatial patterns and drivers of coastal reclamation in southeastern China, along with the resultant habitat loss and conservation gaps for this species. These findings provide scientific evidence for optimizing China’s marine ecological redlines and formulating conservation strategies for endangered marine species. 

Results: Driven primarily by regional population density (r = 0.638, P < 0.01) and gross regional product per capita (r = 0.635, P < 0.01), the cumulative coastal reclamation area in the study region reached 1,683.20 km² from 1990 to 2020, with reclamation intensity of 0.30 ha·yr^–1·km^–1. The reclamation exhibited a distinct spatial pattern characterized by “higher intensity in the north, lower in the south, and significant clustering in estuarine zones.” Extensive reclamation differentially impacted local Chinese white dolphin populations: the Xiamen Bay population experienced the highest proportion of habitat loss and the highest reclamation intensity within its habitat (9.03% and 0.46 ha·yr^–1·km^–1, respectively), followed by the Pearl River Estuary population (4.63% and 0.43 ha·yr^–1·km^–1), the population in the southwestern waters of Hainan was the least affected (0.06% and 0.02 ha·yr^–1·km^–1). Notably, only 8.25% (818.94 km²) of the species’ current habitat was located within protected areas, revealing significant conservation gaps. 

Conclusion & Recommendation: Urgent actions are required to: (1) incorporate the estuarine habitats of Chinese white dolphin population into the natural protected area system; (2) establish an integrated land-sea conservation framework to protect the existing habitats and enhance connectivity.

Aims: Conflict between aquaculture development and waterbird conservation is a widespread issue globally. The expansion of aquaculture occupies waterbird habitats, particularly in coastal areas, and waterbirds feed on aquatic products, potentially increasing the risk of cross-pond disease transmission. This may lead to non-selective lethal control of waterbirds by farmers, creating a vicious cycle that threatens the survival of waterbirds and the ecosystem services they support. To address this issue, promoting the adoption of effective, non-lethal bird control strategies among farmers is essential for achieving sustainable aquaculture. This study systematically evaluates the efficacy of various bird control measures implemented in aquaculture areas. 

Methods: This study examined experimentally validated bird control measures and their associated behavioral stimuli on a global scale from 1950 to 2024. The assessment of their effectiveness was conducted using the vote-counting method. 

Results: The findings indicate that the overall efficacy of existing bird control measures was 66.7%, with composite measures (80.9%) and physical barrier measures (76.7%) being more effective, while single visual disturbance measures have relatively low effectiveness (46.9%). The efficacy of bird control strategies was shaped by various factors, and no single solution could entirely mitigate associated losses. Presently, research in this domain revealed significant imbalances in geographical focus and aquaculture species. Over 80% of documented cases originated from North America and Europe, with only 2.8% reported in Asia. Furthermore, research efforts were predominantly concentrated on fish farming, accounting for 73.1% of cases, while other aquaculture species, such as crustaceans, receive limited attention. 

Conclusion: As the leading global producer of aquaculture, China currently has only one case study examining crustacean farming scenarios. Drawing on international experience and considering its domestic context, this study emphasizes the urgent need for China to conduct effectiveness evaluation experiments in conflict-prone areas, such as coastal aquaculture ponds. Additionally, it is crucial to enhance ecological and behavioral research on waterbirds within aquaculture settings and to develop innovative bird control measures using advanced technologies. These efforts will promote the sustainable growth of aquaculture while reinforcing China’s critical role in the global network for migratory bird conservation.

Background & Aims: The comprehensive and effective protection of biodiversity cannot be achieved solely through protected areas. Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) can coordinate nature conservation with human utilization in a compatible manner. Establishing OECMs system is recognized as an important tool for achieving the 2030 conservation targets within the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. China has not yet formally launched an OECMs system at the national level, and related research is still in the exploratory stage. How to build a national OECMs system within the context of existing protected areas and territorial spatial planning, clarify governance models, recognition systems, and management mechanisms, and effectively fulfill Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, still lacks a clear working path. 

Method: Responding to China’s implementation needs under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, this study conducted a comprehensive analysis of OECMs systems worldwide across three dimensions: governance models, recognition frameworks, and management mechanisms. Based on China’s current natural protected area system and territorial spatial planning framework, we proposed pathways for adapting OECMs to the Chinese context. In terms of governance models, the study made statistical analysis to identify the governance entities and conservation objectives characterizing OECMs across different countries. Regarding the recognition framework, the study focused on analyzing experiences of how countries have developed localized OECMs recognition systems based on their own land use frameworks. The findings provided reference for China to establish a dual-purpose land use system for conservation that aligns with its domestic territorial spatial planning while connecting with international OECMs standards. Concerning management mechanisms, the research examined management measure documents from 199 OECMs sites to synthesize representative management approaches across different land cover types and user groups. This offers insights for developing management protocols for potential OECMs in China and supports bottom-up implementation at various sites. 

Results: In terms of governance models, among OECMs where conservation was a secondary objective or co-benefit, 65% were under collaborative governance, aligning well with the original intent of OECMs—to provide diverse stakeholders with opportunities to participate in conservation while achieving biodiversity outcomes compatible with human use. Notably, the Canadian and Japanese approaches, which centered on government-led and partnership-driven modalities, offered valuable insights for China in establishing cooperative mechanisms and mainstreaming pathways for OECMs. Regarding recognition systems, developing localized OECM frameworks—grounded in each country’s unique spatial planning and ecological management context, including clear definitions, conceptual scope, and tailored criteria—was identified highly instructive. This approach ensured that national definitions of “localized OECMs” are precise and unambiguous, clearly delineated from existing protected area systems domestically, while remaining fully aligned with international OECM standards. In terms of management mechanisms, OECMs exhibited distinct characteristics in conservation priorities, management measures, and monitoring schemes depending on land cover types and user groups. Although the limited number of documented cases has not yet yielded universally applicable models, these examples still provided practical references for designing management strategies for similar potential OECMs. 

Conclusion: China should actively explore governance models, improve the in-situ conservation system, and establish flexible management mechanisms in the near future, laying the foundation for fulfilling the “30×30” target and building a continuum of “conservation-utilization” across the national territory under the vision of “living in harmony with nature”.