Background: Biodiversity conservation remains one of the most urgent priorities on the global environmental agenda. Effectively halting and reversing the ongoing loss of biodiversity constitutes a fundamental challenge for contemporary ecological governance. In order to fulfill the objectives of global sustainable development, it is essential to establish a robust and responsive global biodiversity early warning system capable of real-time monitoring and dynamic assessment of biodiversity trends. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), adopted at the fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15), outlines a strategic roadmap for the future of global biodiversity governance. 

Aims: Based on the objectives articulated by the KMGBF, this study investigates the current status, principal challenges, emerging opportunities, and strategic pathways for advancing the development of a global biodiversity early warning system. Through enhanced international policy coordination and collaborative efforts, the envisioned system aspires to promote the scientific and intelligent governance of global biodiversity. It is expected to provide a rigorous scientific foundation for the formulation and execution of biodiversity conservation policies across nations, thereby making a substantive contribution to global biodiversity protection and the broader pursuit of sustainable development. 

Problems & Prospects: This study begins by underscoring the pivotal role of the KMGBF in guiding the development of a global biodiversity early warning system. Despite notable advancements in recent years, significant challenges persist, including incomplete data coverage, reliance on outdated technologies, and insufficient international cooperation. Building on the vision articulated in the KMGBF, this paper systematically outlines the foundational architecture and key components of a global biodiversity early warning system, and proposes a suite of global indicators to facilitate its implementation. Furthermore, this paper advocates the integration of multi-source data, including satellite remote sensing and ground-based camera observations, along with advanced technologies such as cloud computing and artificial intelligence. This integrated approach aims to establish a scalable and resilient global biodiversity early warning system that can support multidimensional, multilevel, and multiscale biodiversity assessments.

Aims: The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau is the largest and highest plateau in the world, expanding across China, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Myanmar, with majority of its area in China. Its complex terrain and diverse climate conditions have nurtured a rich and unique biota, making it one of the global hotspots for biodiversity research and conservation. This study focuses on the herpetofauna diversity from the Chinese part of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, aiming to compile an annotated checklist of amphibians and reptiles of the region and analyze their distribution patterns for future taxonomic and conservation works. 

Methods: Following Zhang et al. (2021a), we clarified the scope of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau within China, covering 220 county-level administrative units in six provinces/ autonomous regions. Based on this preset geographic area, we extracted data on herpetofauna diversity and their distribution from comprehensive literature review and supplemented their distribution data with our new field records. With the checklist, we further incorporated additional information including their endemic status, conservation status, and national protection status. Finally, we analyzed the county-level spatial distribution patterns of amphibians and reptiles separately, focusing on the total species richness, endemic species, threatened species (CR, EN, VU), assessment-pending species (DD, NE), and species newly discovered. 

Results: As of December 31, 2024, the amphibian fauna of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau comprised of 151 species in 39 genera, 12 families, and two orders (Caudata: 10 species in three genera and three families; Anura: 141 species in 36 genera and nine families), representing 22.0% of China's total amphibian species. On the other hand, the reptile fauna of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau includes 206 species in 62 genera, 19 families, and two orders (Testudines: one species in one genus and one family; Squamata: 96 species in 24 genera and 6 families for Lacertilia, 109 species in 37 genera and 12 families for Serpentes), representing 30.3% of China's total reptile species. Among them, 64 species of amphibian and 72 species of reptile species are endemic to the region. Notably, over a quarter of the herpetofauna species of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau were either described or newly recorded within the past decade (2015-2024). According to China’s Red List of Biodiversity, 22.5% and 11.7% of the amphibians and reptiles from the region, respectively, are classified as threatened, while 42.4% and 43.7% of them respectively lack effective conservation assessments. Analysis of county-level distribution patterns reveals a clear spatial heterogeneity in herpetofauna composition across the region. Three distinct biodiversity hotspots emerge, including southeastern Xizang, northwestern Yunnan, and western Sichuan, and Medog County stands out with the highest species richness, endemism and number of new species/new records discovered among all county-level administrative regions. 

Conclusion: Characterized by both a rich species diversity and a high level of endemism, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau possesses exceptional conservation value. Southeastern Xizang, western Sichuan, and northwestern Yunnan were identified as priority regions for continuous field surveys and taxonomic studies in the future. The lack of both conservation assessments and basic natural history data that support conservation assessments would prevent effective conservation of the herpetofauna from Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, and such data gaps should be filled urgently. Future conservation strategies must address escalating threats including habitat loss, overexploitation, and climate-driven environmental changes.

Background: The 16th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 16) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was held in Cali, Colombia. This meeting marked the first CBD Conference of the Parties since the adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (referred to as the "KMGBF"). Delegates were engaged in in-depth discussions on over 20 key topics, including the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Framework, benefit-sharing mechanisms for digital sequence information (DSI) on genetic resources, and marine and coastal biodiversity conservation. 

Methods and results: This article summarizes the progress of key issues at COP 16, covering the benefit-sharing mechanism for DSI, the monitoring framework of the KMGBF, resource mobilization and financial mechanisms, conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, biodiversity and climate change, as well as Article 8(j) and related provisions. 

Recommendations: Based on China’s actual experience in fulfilling its obligations under the CBD, the paper puts forward prospects for future implementation. These prospects include promoting research and management of DSI, conducting reporting based on the KMGBF’s monitoring framework, leveraging the role of the Kunming Biodiversity Fund to continue leading global ecological and environmental governance, advancing coordinated governance of biodiversity conservation, oceans, and climate, valuing the voices of diverse groups, and strengthening interministerial cooperation and the building of implementation teams.

Aims: Species spatial association networks are crucial for understanding community structure, revealing interspecific ecological relationships, and elucidating species coexistence mechanisms. The yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula), a representative medium-sized carnivore on the northern slope of the Qinling Mountains, exerts a significant impact on the population structure of other animals and vegetation resource allocation. This study investigates its interspecific associations with ground-dwelling birds and mammals in this ecologically complex region. 

Methods: We conducted interspecific association analysis using data from 83 infrared camera-traps deployed on the northern slope of the Qinling Mountains’ main ridge during 2019–2024, and further constructed an association network between the yellow-throated marten and sympatric ground-dwelling birds and mammals in this area. 

Results: (1) Among 29 ground-dwelling species (belonging to 6 orders and 13 families) captured by the cameras, the yellow-throated marten showed significant positive spatial associations with 14 species. It exhibited commensal ecological relationships with four species, namely wild boar (Sus scrofa), Reeves’s muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), Chinese takin (Budorcas tibetana), and tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), while displaying symmetric ecological relationships with the remaining 10 species. (2) The yellow-throated marten contributed the second-highest to community stability, surpassed only by the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Fourteen species, including the golden snub-nosed monkey, tufted deer, and Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus), were identified as core network species, whereas nine species (e.g., Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii), and masked palm squirrel (Tamiops swinhoei) were peripheral. The yellow-throated marten is one of the most active species in the network. Particularly in the Qinling forest ecosystem where large carnivores are scarce, it plays a vital role in maintaining community stability. 

Conclusions: This study highlights the yellow-throated marten’s ecological significance and underscores the need for targeted conservation strategies to preserve interspecific interactions and community stability in the northern Qinling Mountains.

Aims：In the context of global biodiversity facing threats, protecting the genetic diversity of wildlife is of critical importance for maintaining ecological balance and enhancing the adaptive capacity of ecosystems. 

Methods：This study took red deer in the Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve as the research object, using non-invasive sampling methods to collect fecal samples, and analyzed their genetic diversity and genetic structure based on microsatellite and mitochondrial markers (CYTB, D-LOOP). 

Results：The results showed that the overall observed heterozygosity (Ho) for microsatellites was 0.662, the expected heterozygosity (He) was 0.777, the polymorphic information content (PIC) was 0.712, and the inbreeding coefficient (Fis) was 0.165, indicating a deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The haplotype diversity (Hd) of mitochondrial markers CYTB and D-LOOP was 0.447 and 0.605, respectively, and the nucleotide diversity (Pi) was 0.00463 and 0.00334, respectively. Compared to other subspecies of red deer, the genetic diversity of red deer in Ebinur Lake National Park is moderately high. No bottleneck effect has occurred, and a certain degree of inbreeding is present. Microsatellite structure analysis and principal coordinate analysis indicate that red deer in Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve form two distinct clusters, suggesting genetic differentiation has occurred.Phylogenetic and genetic distance analysis suggests that the red deer in the Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve are closely related to the Tianshan red deer and the Altai red deer. 

Conclusion：As one of the large ungulate species within the reserve, its genetic diversity is of significant importance for maintaining the ecosystem. Therefore, to preserve the genetic diversity of the red deer in the Ebinur Lake Nature Reserve, it is recommended to strengthen the protection of red deer habitats, establish ecological corridors to facilitate gene exchange, and prevent inbreeding.

Background & Aim:  The establishment of protected area systems constitutes the principal form of in situ biodiversity conservation. Robust management investment is crucial for ensuring effective ecological conservation outcomes. In this context, Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) sets forth an ambitious goal: achieve effective conservation and management coverage of 30% of the world's areas by 2030. Assessing the management effectiveness of in situ conservation measures under this target is pivotal for its successful global implementation. To gain a comprehensive understanding of global progress in assessing management effectiveness, this paper reviews the development context of protected area management effectiveness assessment (PAME) within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Drawing on insights from international PAME practices, the paper aims to promote the standardization of PAME in China and enhance the mainstreaming of the concept. Ultimately, it seeks to provide a scientific reference for evaluating the management effectiveness of in situ conservation in China's implementation of GBF Target 3. 

Progress: The shift in the management assessment paradigm stems on the one hand from changes in conservation philosophy, and on the other hand from the progress of evaluation technology. The development of PAME can be divided into four phases: the initial exploratory phase (1980–2000), the systematization phase (2000–2010), the equity-integrated effectiveness assessment phase (2010–2020), and the post-2020 phase, which is characterized by dynamic, outcome-oriented standards. As global in situ conservation policies advance, the concept of effectiveness evolves from focusing solely on internal management processes to an outcome-oriented assessment that also considers the interests of surrounding communities and Indigenous Peoples. Equitable governance is a prerequisite for effective management, while conservation outcomes are the key indicators of management effectiveness. PAME has placed growing emphasis on measurable conservation outcomes, while explicitly integrating governance fairness into its evaluation framework. The IUCN Green List Standard integrates long-term ecological monitoring with adaptive management and clearly differentiates between management and governance components. Since 2020, this standard has become a key benchmark for evaluating in situ conservation effectiveness and a guiding reference for updating or developing international assessment tools. 

Prospects: Building on international PAME practices and considering current challenges in China, this study proposes the construction of a multi-level, localized PAME framework based on four dimensions—spatial planning, management effectiveness, governance effectiveness, and conservation outcomes—and introduces a phased assessment procedure, aiming to promote the standardization of PAME for protected areas in China. Simultaneously, it is recommended that protected area PAME be integrated into conservation management practice to mainstream the concept of management effectiveness assessment. Given the current lack of systematic understanding of the causal mechanisms affecting protected area management effectiveness, we highlight the need to strengthen quantitative research, identify key determinants of management performance, and explore evidence-based decision-making mechanisms for in situ conservation, thereby contributing to global biodiversity conservation efforts.

Aims: Understanding the spatial distribution patterns and population dynamics of species within a region is crucial for developing scientifically sound conservation strategies. Urban biodiversity serves as a vital foundation for urban ecosystem productivity and stability, providing diverse ecosystem services. However, rapid urbanization continues to transform natural landscapes and fragment wildlife habitats. As a rapidly developing city, Hangzhou represents an important case for examining urban ecological change, making a thorough assessment of its current biodiversity status particularly meaningful. 

Methods: Based on infrared camera monitoring data covering the entire area of Hangzhou (with a total of 1,224 cameras deployed and 401,600 effective camera-days), we systematically analyzed: (1) spatial distribution patterns of species within the region, with a focus on rare and endangered species; (2) estimated population densities using the random encounter model and evaluated ecological factors influencing habitat use via occupancy modeling; (3) effectiveness of the current conservation system in protecting species; and (4) identification of priority conservation areas for rare species in Hangzhou using the Zonation software. 

Results: The results showed that: (1) A total of 147 species were recorded, comprising 30 mammal species (7 orders, 18 families) and 117 bird species (11 orders, 36 families). The most frequently observed mammals were Reeves’s muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), Chinese ferret-badger (Melogale moschata), and hog badger (Arctonyx collaris), while the silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) was the dominant bird species. (2) Species diversity exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with Lin’an and Chun’an regions hosting major distribution areas for key protected species. Rare species such as the black muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons) and Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii) were concentrated in these regions, whereas the sika deer (Cervus nippon) was found only in protected areas of Lin’an. Chun’an supported an ecologically significant population of leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), while Yuhang was characterized by the presence of peri-urban adapted carnivores such as raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and Asian badger (Meles leucurus). (3) For widely distributed species, elevation emerged as a major factor influencing their distribution in Hangzhou. Among the 16 species analyzed, nine exhibited significant elevational effects. Specifically, elevation played a decisive role in the distribution of Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura), leopard cat, raccoon dog, and silver pheasant, with higher occupancy probabilities observed at higher elevations (P < 0.05). (4) Systematic spatial prioritization identified a total priority conservation area of 5,068.85 km². Within the top 30% priority zones, 54.33% of the existing protected areas are located, conserving 20.74% of the key priority regions. The national-level protection system—comprising Tianmushan National Nature Reserve, Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, and Fuchun River–Xin’an River National Scenic Area—contributes 94.25% of the protected areas within these high-priority zones. Significant conservation gaps were identified in the Qianligang Mountains of Chun’an, the Xianghu area in Xiaoshan, Daoshi and Qingliangfeng towns in Lin’an, as well as the mountainous regions of Baijiang town in Tonglu. 

Conclusion: These findings provide a scientific basis for optimizing Hangzhou’s biodiversity conservation network and improving its protected area system, providing critical guidance for conservation management, particularly in key regions such as Lin’an and Chun’an.

Aim: Wildlife is a vital component of biodiversity, and its efficient monitoring through image recognition is crucial for conservation. However, the performance of wildlife image recognition models often declines due to cross-domain distribution shifts from complex environments and interference from unknown species in the target domain. 

Methods: To address these challenges, we propose an open-set domain adaptation method for wildlife images that integrates adversarial disentanglement and feature alignment. We first constructed a domain adversarial network using the ResNet50 residual network. Next, a dual optimization strategy combining center alignment and orthogonal projection was employed to enhance the discriminative power for known categories and disentangle the feature space of unknown categories. The final open-set domain adaptation recognition model was developed by integrating these components. 

Results: When trained and evaluated on datasets with 8 and 11 wildlife species, our method achieved Average-HOS values of 48.95% and 46.38%, respectively. This represents a significant performance improvement of 14.73% and 9.53% in Average-HOS compared to the best baseline methods. 

Conclusion: The collaborative optimization approach effectively addresses domain shift and unknown category interference, thereby enhancing the model’s cross-domain generalization and unknown category identification capabilities in real-world scenarios.

Background: With the accelerating pace of global urbanization, urban biodiversity is facing increasingly severe challenges, including habitat loss, ecological fragmentation, and the decline of native species. As the fundamental spatial and functional unit of urban spatial structure and ecological system, urban blocks not only support residential, commercial, and social functions, but also serve as critical interfaces where the built environment interacts with ecological systems. They play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem services, supporting habitat provision, and shaping local biodiversity patterns. In recent years, as urban regeneration progresses, how to effectively embed biodiversity enhancement goals into spatial planning at the scale of urban block has become a pressing and central issue in the field of urban ecological planning and sustainable design. 

Aims & Methods: While studies examining the impacts of urban block built environment on urban biodiversity have increased in recent years, systematic reviews and integrative theoretical frameworks remain insufficient, constraining theoretical development. To address this gap, this study conducts a bibliometric and content-based review of relevant domestic and international research, and categorizes built environment factors affecting urban biodiversity at the block scale into five categories: block greening, vegetation characteristics, land use, three-dimensional morphology, and mediating factors (human activity and climate factors). Based on this framework, the study comprehensively summarizes various impact factors and their relationships identified in existing research. 

Results: Findings reveal three key discoveries: (1) the urban block scale is critically important for biodiversity research, exhibiting distinct characteristics that differentiate it from other spatial scales; (2) the urban block built environment influences biodiversity through both direct and indirect pathways, creating complex impact mechanisms; (3) human activity in urban blocks demonstrate significant mediating effects, while climate factors play important moderating roles in shaping biodiversity patterns, suggesting these interactive effects warrant in-depth future investigation. 

Conclusion: Based on this, the study proposes four major directions for future research: (1) deepening research on the impacts of block three-dimensional morphology on urban biodiversity; (2) revealing mediating effects of human activities at block scale; (3) exploring regulatory mechanisms of climate factors on biodiversity patterns; (4) developing differentiated guidelines and standards for refined urban block regeneration. 

Perspectives: This review aims to provide a systematic theoretical foundation for urban block spatial planning oriented toward biodiversity enhancement, and to promote the construction of urban spatial systems characterized by ecological resilience and integration with nature.

Aims: Phyllosphere microorganisms play a crucial role in host plant health, adaptability, and ecosystem stability. However, research on the diversity characteristics and driving mechanisms of phyllosphere microbial communities in temperate desert shrubs remains limited. 

Methods: This study focused on three typical desert shrubs in the Gurbantunggut Desert [Calligonum leucocladum, Ephedra przewalskii, and Haloxylon persicum]. Using 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology, combined with PCoA analysis, redundancy analysis, and null models, we systematically examined the diversity characteristics of phyllosphere bacterial communities and the relative contributions of deterministic and stochastic processes to their assembly. 

Results: The results showed that both host plant identity and geographic location significantly influenced the diversity and structure of phyllosphere bacterial communities (P < 0.05), with host identity explaining a substantially higher proportion of the variance (R² = 0.766) compared to geographic location (R² = 0.046). The independent contribution of plant functional traits to the variation in phyllosphere bacterial community structure (9.39%–47.45%) was far greater than that of climatic factors (0%–0.38%) and soil properties (1.23%–6.21%). Stochastic processes (75.53%–95.24%) dominated the assembly of phyllosphere bacterial communities, with ecological drift (60.01%–91.43%) being the core driving force. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed tightly connected network structures and significant modularity features in the phyllosphere bacterial communities of different desert shrubs. 

Conclusion: This study elucidates the diversity characteristics and assembly mechanisms of phyllosphere bacterial communities in arid desert shrubs, highlighting the key role of host functional traits, and provides theoretical foundations and practical guidance for adaptive management strategies of desert ecosystems under global climate change.

Background & Aims: In response to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, China released the China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023-2030) (China NBSAP) in January 2024, aiming to guide the overall layout of biodiversity conservation in China and provide guidance for local efforts in biodiversity conservation. The release of China NBSAP has spurred the formulation and update of a new round of LBSAPs. This paper collects and summarizes the new round of LBSAPs released by 17 provinces (municipalities, autonomous regions) in China after the release of the China NBSAP. The response of LBSAPs to China's NBSAP was analyzed from three aspects: protection goals, priority actions, and guarantee mechanisms. The compatibility between local biodiversity governance and national actions was sorted out. The differences and influencing factors in target setting among different regions and provinces in China were studied. The bottlenecks in multi-level governance were revealed and the optimization paths were proposed. 

Results: The provincial LBSAPs are closely aligned with the goals, action directions and guarantee mechanisms of China NBSAP. Based on the framework of the China NBSAP, each province has proposed local goals, actions, and guarantee measures in accordance with local conditions. The characteristics of biodiversity governance show regional differences. The economically developed eastern coastal regions are relatively advanced in terms of governance concepts, policy innovation and technological application compared to the central and western regions. However, most local biodiversity protection efforts still face difficulties such as unclear target paths, poor departmental coordination, insufficient funds, weak technological capabilities and insufficient public participation. 

Recommendations: The state should promote and guide localities to scientifically formulate and implement LBSAPs, and local governments urgently need to strengthen overall coordination, optimize fund allocation, enhance scientific and technological capabilities, and promote the collaborative efforts of the central and local governments in biodiversity governance to help achieve the goals of China NBSAP.

Aims: Changes in forest types resulting from artificial plantations significantly influence the structure and function of soil animal communities. Collembola constitute a crucial decomposer group within soil ecosystems. Given the substantial variation in body size among Collembola species and the non-linear relationships between body size, body mass, and metabolic rate within Collembola, the main aim of the present study is to evaluate the (dis)similarities in the effects of forest type changes and the physicochemical properties of litterfall on the ‘stock’ functions (density and biomass) and ‘flow’ functions (metabolic rate) of soil Collembola. 

Methods: In this study, five replicate plots were established in each of three forest types—natural secondary Quercus liaotungensis forests, 60-year-old artificially planted Larix principis rupprechtii plantations, and Pinus tabulaeformis plantations. Soil Collembola samples were extracted and identified to morphospecies. Mean body length was measured for each morphospecies, and was then converted to body mass and metabolic rates. The effects of forest type and litter biomass and nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations on the total density, biomass, and metabolic rate, as well as the community weighted means (CWMs) of body length, body mass, and metabolic rate of Collembola were evaluated. 

Results: The results showed that (1) forest type did not significantly affect the total density, total biomass, or total metabolic rate of Collembola communities. However, the density structure, biomass structure, and metabolic structure of Collembola communities in pine plantations differed significantly from those in larch and oak forests; (2) nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations of leaf litters, rather than litter biomass, significantly influenced (positively correlated with) the density, biomass, and metabolic rate of Collembola class and three orders of Collembola; (3) forest type did not significantly affect the CWMs of body length, body mass, or mean metabolic rate, however, it significantly influenced the CWMs of those functions of Entomobryomorpha and Symphypleona. Furthermore, litter biomass and nitrogen/phosphorus concentrations were significantly correlated with the CWMs of body length, body mass, and metabolic rates of certain Collembola orders. 

Conclusion: The study results indicate that sixty-year-old larch plantations exhibited comparable functions of Collembola, such as the structures of density, biomass, and metabolic rates, with natural oak forests on the Dongling Mountain; while pine plantations significantly altered these functions of Collembola, primarily attributable to the low-quality litter (characterized by reduced nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations). The extent to which forest type and leaf litter properties influence density, biomass, and metabolic rate, as well as the CWMs of body length, body mass, and metabolic rates of Collembola vary with Collembola orders. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that forest type and litter properties exert similar effects on the metabolic rate and biomass across three Collembola orders, whereas their impacts on the density of Collembola shows considerable difference. By analyzing differences in the effects of environmental variables on both ‘stock’ functions (e.g., density and biomass) and ‘flow’ functions (e.g., metabolic rate) at both the class and order levels of Collembola, this study provides a novel perspective for systematically investigating how environmental changes influence the ecological functions of soil animal communities.