Aims: Pollination plays a crucial role within ecosystems. Accurate identification and analysis of the pollen loads carried by pollinators are essential for understanding the plant‒pollinator interactions and assessing pollination activity. Traditional pollen identification methods, which are often reliant on microscopic observation, are time-consuming and require specialized expertise, limiting their utility in large-scale applications and in the assessment of pollination efficiency and rare plant‒pollinator interactions. To address this issue, we developed an Artificial Intelligence (AI) pollen identification model using a public platform.
Method: The AI model was based on pollen from 14 co-flowering plant species from Tianchi Mountain National Forest Park in Luoyang, China. We identified the pollen composition of 142 pollinators using both the traditional microscopic observation method and the AI model to explore and compare for the first time the structural differences in the plant‒pollinator interaction networks constructed by the two identification methods.
Results: The results demonstrated that the AI model achieved an overall accuracy rate of 96%. While there were differences between human recognition and the AI model in the number of identified links, quantity of pollen, and consistency rate of photo identification, both methods showed a high degree of consistency. The AI model slightly outperformed human methods in link identification (6.5%) and pollen quantity (0.8%). Moreover, in third-party consistency checks, the majority of the cases favored the results from the AI model. Despite some differences regarding unique links, the quantitative networks constructed by human recognition and the AI model showed a high degree of structural similarity.
Conclusion: This study reveals the potential of AI image recognition technology to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of pollen analysis, and its relevance to plant‒pollinator interaction research. This advancement could facilitate a more efficient advancement of large-scale studies of pollination networks, providing new tools and perspectives for pollination ecology research.

Aims: Specialized pollination systems are often perceived as finely tuned interactions between specific plant species and their pollinators. However, empirical evidence suggests that these systems also accommodate visits from non-pollinating species. While previous research has primarily focused on the mutualistic aspects of plants and pollinators in the specialized pollination, the broader impacts of various floral visitors have been overlooked. The intricate pollination dynamics between Alocasia odora and Colocasiomyia species, notably C. alocasia or C. xenalocasiae, exemplify such specialization. Yet, the roles and influences of numerous other floral visitors remain incompletely understood within this pollination system.
Methods: The specialized pollination system of A. odora served as the focal point of this study. Initially, morphological characteristics of the inflorescence were meticulously observed and documented across various stages of flowering. These observations provided essential insights into the positioning and timing of visitor and pollinator activity on the inflorescence. Subsequently, the primary breeding systems of A. odora were elucidated through controlled breeding experiments. By thoroughly monitoring visitor behavior and conducting pollination efficiency experiments, we identified visitor groups with a preference for inflorescence visitation and evaluated their impacts on successful pollination. Finally, we conducted a comprehensive analysis to assess the influence of generalized visitors on the specialized pollination system of A. odora.
Results: Our meticulous visitor exclusion experiments unequivocally confirmed the indispensable pollinating role of specific Colocasiomyia species in the pollination of A. odora. Furthermore, analysis of the plant’s breeding system had revealed self-incompatibility in A. odora, attributed to the spatial and temporal separation of male and female reproductive phases. Remarkably, the inflorescence of A. odora exhibited a significant attraction to a diverse array of visitors, encompassing species from the Nitidulidae, Apidae, Staphylinidae, and Tarsonemidae families, totaling 10 distinct species. Despite their presence, these visitors did not exert a significant influence on pollination successes and fruit set rates. However, their activities, such as foraging on pollen and sterile zones, had the potential to undermine pollen or other rewarding resource utility and initiate resource competition with genuine pollinators.
Conclusion: This study illuminates the specialized pollination mutualism system between A. odora and Colocasiomyia species, characterized by specificity, stability, and high efficiency. A. odora demonstrates self-incompatibility, with cross-pollination serving as the primary mode of reproduction. The success of pollination hinges upon pollinators, particularly C. alocasia or C. xenalocasiae, which form intimate mutualist relationships with A. odora. Moreover, in the Haikou area, A. odora and two species of Colocasiomyia flies engage in a unique “two-on-one” pollination system. Looking ahead, future studies investigating similar specialized pollination systems should adopt a holistic approach, considering both plants and all interflower visitors comprehensively. By doing so, researchers can obtain a more objective and comprehensive perspective and results.

Aims: The transition to dioecy constitutes a pivotal milestone in the evolution of sexual functions in flowering plants, marking a shift from the integration of male and female reproductive organs within the same individual to their separation. This sexual system occurs across numerous angiosperm families and genera. Both female and male individuals of dioecious species display variations in distribution, morphology, and life history traits. Therefore, it is essential to examine the spatial distribution and sexual dimorphism of dioecious species in order to comprehend their reproductive strategies, adaptability, and evolutionary patterns. The genus Arisaema is the only reported taxon within the Araceae family known to possess a dioecious sexual system. In this study, we explored the differences between the dioecious members of Arisaema erubescens in the Badagongshan National Nature Reserve, Hunan Province, China, with a specific focus on the spatial distribution and sexual dimorphisms.
Methods: We surveyed the coordinate positions of male and female individuals across four plots, analyzed both the sex ratio and spatial distribution patterns of these individuals. Sexual dimorphism was assessed based on phenological and morphological traits of A. erubescens. Additionally, a quantitative comparison of the floral visitor assemblages between female and male individuals was conducted.
Results: From our observations, the A. erubescens population was significantly dominated by staminate flora. Male and female individuals were found to clusters on small scales and disperse randomly on a large scale. The male individuals flowered 4 days earlier than the females. The permutational multivariate analysis of variance identified significant disparities in morphological traits between male and female individuals, which are pivotal to sexual dimorphism. These traits include the pseudostem basal diameter, the diameter of spathe tube, the inflorescence basal diameter, and the peduncle diameter. The primary pollinators of A. erubescens were the diurnal fungus gnats of the Mycetophila species, with an extremely higher visitation frequency observed on male individuals compared to those on female individuals.
Conclusions: Our study suggests that the spatial association of different genders in A. erubescens corresponds to the pollinators’ activity habits. The sex dimorphism of A. erubescens in flowering phenology, morphological traits, and pollination activity collectively guaranteed the reproductive success of the species.

Aims: Survival and reproduction are fundamental traits crucial for maintaining population stability in organisms. Cuticular hydrocarbons serve dual purposes in insects: maintaining water balance and facilitating chemical communication. However, the interplay between adaptation to varying climatic conditions and maintaining reliability in chemical signaling remains poorly understood. This study delves into the sexual dimorphism and seasonal variations in cuticular hydrocarbons of the pollinating fig wasp Ceratosolen gravelyi, which parasitizes the male phase of Ficus semicordata.
Methods: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was employed to analyze the types and concentrations of cuticular hydrocarbons present in female and male adults of C. gravelyi across distinct seasonal periods: rainy, fog-cool, and dry-hot seasons. To elucidate the response mechanism of cuticular hydrocarbons in C. gravelyi to varying seasons, non-metric multidimensional scaling, analysis of similarities, permutational multivariate analysis of variance, and random forest techniques were utilized.
Results: (1) A total of 34 compounds were identified in the cuticular hydrocarbons produced by the pollinator C. gravelyi in F. semicordata, primarily comprising n-alkanes, methylalkanes, olefins, and methylolefins, with carbon chain lengths ranging from C7 and C44. Notably, squalene, 2-Methyloctacosane (2-Me-C28), n-Tetratriacontane (n-C34), n-Hexatriacontane (n-C36), and n-Tetratetracontane (n-C44) emerged as the predominant components, each constituting over 5% of the total composition. (2) Significant qualitative and quantitative differences were observed in the cuticular hydrocarbon profiles between male and female adults of C. gravelyi. Notable contributors to these differences included n-Dotetracontane (n-C42), 17-Pentatriacontene (17-C35:1), 1-Nonacosene (C29:1), 2-Me-C28, and squalene. (3) The cuticular hydrocarbons of both male and female adults exhibited pronounced seasonal variations. During the dry-hot season, there was a notable increase in the proportion of n-alkanes (n-C34, n-C36, and n-C44) and the total absolute content of cuticular hydrocarbons in females. This increase was accompanied by a decrease in the proportion of methylalkanes (2-Me-C28) and methylalkenes (squalene). Conversely, in males, there was an increase in the proportion of methylalkenes, while the proportions of n-alkanes and methylalkanes decreased. However, the total absolute content of cuticular hydrocarbons did not exhibit significant variation in males across seasons.
Conclusion: This study elucidates the sexual dimorphism and seasonal plasticity inherent in the cuticular hydrocarbons of C. gravelyi. Specifically, 2-Me-C28 and squalene emerge as potential candidate sex pheromones facilitating mate recognition among fig wasps. Our findings reveal distinct responses to high temperature and/or dry climate conditions in female and male adults, underscoring the adoption of different adaptive strategies by the two sexes of the pollinator C. gravelyi across seasons. This research sheds light on the chemical adaptation mechanism of fig wasps to varying climatic environments, laying a foundational understanding of the ecological and evolutionary implications of cuticular hydrocarbons. These insights provide a crucial chemical framework for studying the dual traits of insects and unraveling the functional relationship between ecological adaptation and speciation.

Aims: Dimorphic cleistogamy, characterized by the coexistence of open chasmogamous (CH) and closed cleistogamous (CL) flowers within a single plant, presents a unique mating system. Viola monbeigii and V. dissecta exhibit this dimorphic cleistogamy, producing CH flowers in early spring and CL flowers in summer and early autumn. However, the role of photoperiods in regulating the development of CH and CL flowers in these Viola species remains unclear. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the influence of photoperiods on the development of CH and CL flowers in Viola monbeigii and V. dissecta. Additionally, the study seeks to elucidate the main morphological distinctions corresponding to the different development stages of CH and CL flowers in these two Viola species.
Methods: Viola monbeigii and V. dissecta were cultivated under controlled photoperiods of 10, 12, and 16 hours. The morphology of flower buds was meticulously observed using a stereomicroscope. Flowering days and the proportions of flowering induction, chasmogamous (CH), intermediate cleistogamous (inCL), and cleistogamous (CL) flowers were assessed under each of the 10, 12, and 16-hour photoperiods. Additionally, a stereomicroscope was employed to discern the principal morphological disparities corresponding to the different developmental stages of the CH and CL flowers in both Viola species.
Results: (1) Both V. monbeigii and V. dissecta exhibited the development of both chasmogamous (CH) and cleistogamous (CL) flowers. Key morphological disparities between CH and CL flowers included variations in petals and stamen size and number, the presence or absence of nectaries, filament length, and stigma curvature. CH flowers typically featured five large, showy petals with a spur at the base of the lowest petal; five stamens formed a cone surrounding the pistil, and nectar glands on the lowest two stamens that noticeably extended into the spur formed by the lowest petal. The pistil was erect and higher than the stamens. In contrast, CL flowers possessed two stamens without nectar glands, longer filaments, and underdeveloped petals and stamens. All of the remaining stamens and five petals were undeveloped. Typically, the stigma of the pistil is curved toward the two most developed stamens. In our experiment, certain conditions led to the development of intermediate cleistogamous (inCL) flowers, which displayed variable characteristics, with 1-3 poorly developed petals and 2-5 developed stamens, devoid of nectar glands, and with longer filaments. (2) Photoperiods exerted a regulatory influence on the development of CH and CL flowers in both V. monbeigii and V. dissecta. CL and inCL flowers predominately formed under long daylight hours (16-hour daylight), while under 10- and 12-hour daylight, simultaneous development of CH and inCL flowers occurred. (3) Morphological distinctions between CH and CL flowers in V. monbeigii and V. dissecta were discernable from the initial developmental stage after the formation of four floral organ primordia. These differences became more pronounced as flower development progressed, indicating a gradual divergence in floral morphology between the two flower types.
Conclusion: This study elucidated the impact of photoperiods on the development of chasmogamous CH and cleistogamous CL flowers in V. monbeigii and V. dissecta while delineating significant morphological disparities between these flower types in the two Viola species. By comprehensively exploring the mechanistic underpinnings of photoperiod-induced dimorphic flower development in V. monbeigii and V. dissecta, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of CH and CL flower development in Viola. Furthermore, it furnishes a theoretical foundation for investigating the adaptive evolution of dimorphic cleistogamous plants.

Background & Aim: Cryptic dioecy refers to a population that is phenotypically non-dioecious, but individuals actually function as males or females due to the morphologically hermaphroditic flower that typically exhibits female or male sterility. As a widespread transitional from hermaphroditism to dioecy, understandings of adaptive strategy of cryptic dioecy could help of illuminating the evolution of diverse sexual systems within angiosperms.
Progress: The morphological sex expressions of cryptic dioecy are diverse and can be classified into four types: androdioecy (type I), hermaphrodite (type II), gynodioecy (type III) and others (type IV), constituting 48.9%, 47.5%, 2.7%, and 0.9% of reported species, respectively. In the APG IV system, cryptic dioecy occurs across 22 orders, 36 families and 65 genera in around 221 species which accounts for approximately 34.4% of orders, 8.7% of families, 0.5% of genera and merely about 0.1% of angiosperms species. Most cryptic dioecious species are woody, biotic pollinated and distributed in tropics or subtropics. They have nectar or pollen as a floral reward. Phylogenetically, the sexual system appears in magnolia, monocotyledon and eudicots, particularly prevalent among more advanced core eudicots. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolutionary significance of sterile sex organs in cryptic dioecy, including ancestry hypothesis, genetic constraints hypothesis, promotion of wind-borne pollen dispersal hypothesis, pollinator attraction hypothesis, mimicry and deception hypothesis, but empirical studies remain little known. In this study, we provide a comprehensive summary of the forms of sex expression and types of sterile sex organs of cryptic dioecious in plant lineages. Families with cryptic dioecious species evolved are mapped into an updated phylogeny of angiosperms and systematic evolution of taxa with this sexual system in. Furthermore, five hypotheses regarding evolutionary significance of sterile sex organs in cryptic dioecious are also presented.
Prospects: The future trajectory of related research is presented, with the aim of providing insights into the empirical studies of selection underlying the evolution of cryptic dioecy in angiosperms.

Aims: The small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) is a national first-class key protected wild animal in China. However, there is very little information about the current distribution and habitat ecology of this species in China. The aims of this study were to: (1) understand how the diel activity pattern of V. indica is affected by sympatric species and human activities; and (2) investigate habitat selection of V. indica in Hainan Datian National Nature Reserve.
Methods: From October 2021 to August 2023, the diel activity pattern and habitat selection of V. indica in the nature reserve were studied by camera trapping, with 120 camera traps placed at 50 sites. A non-parametric circular kernel-density method was adopted to analyze the diel activity patterns of V. indica, sympatric leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis), murine rodents, squirrels, and humans. We used the Mann-Whitney U test to compare differences in habitat characteristics between plots where V. indica were detected (number of plots N = 13) and those where they were not (N = 19). These habitat characteristics included the number of prey animals (murine rodents and squirrels), tree diameter at breast height, tree height, grass cover, distance to the nearest water source, and distance to the nearest road. Vanderploeg & Scavia’s resource selection index was used to select three discrete variables to model civets’ habitat preferences: vegetation types, tree canopy, and disturbance intensity.
Results: Our sampling effort totaled 24,778 camera days, during which we recorded 48 independent detections of V. indica from 13 sites, thus confirming that V. indica was stably distributed in the region. The diel activity pattern of the species was strictly nocturnal, with a nighttime activity peak around 22:00. The study suggested that the activities of V. indica didn’t align with human activity, with a very low temporal overlap index (∆ = 0.04) between them. Squirrels had similar activity rhythms to humans, which obviously differed from V. indica (∆ = 0.14). The activity time of V. indica and P. bengalensis overlapped greatly (∆ = 0.58), but their activity rhythms were significantly different (P < 0.001). Murine rodents were common prey of V. indica and P. bengalensis, with both predators displaying a large temporal overlap with murine rodents (V. indica: ∆ = 0.77; P. bengalensis: ∆ = 0.65). In terms of habitat selection, V. indica preferred Mangifera indica forests, which feature moderate levels of tree canopy (50% to 75%) as well as low to medium disturbance intensity. In addition, plots used by V. indica had significantly greater numbers of prey animals than unused plots (P < 0.001).
Conclusion: The diel activity pattern of V. indica was strictly nocturnal. They obviously avoided human activities, and their activity rhythms were significantly different from P. bengalensis. Viverricula indica preferred habitats with abundant food resources in Mangifera indica forests, featuring a moderate level of tree canopy and weak to moderate disturbance.

Aims: At present, few studies have been conducted on the behavior of wild forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii). Therefore, we aim to construct an ethogram and posture-act-environment (PAE) coding system for M. berezovskii to improve our fundamental understanding of this species’ behavior.
Methods: Infrared camera monitoring data collected at Hupingshan National Nature Reserve in Hunan Province from April 2019 to June 2023 were classified and summarized. Referring to commonly used animal behavior coding methods in China, the behavior spectrum and PAE coding system of M. berezovskii were established with ‘posture-act- environment’. These behavioral data were statistically analyzed and the behavioral diversity index was calculated to analyze differences in behavior across seasons, genders, age groups, and habitats.
Results: A total of 845 valid photos and 133 videos of wild M. berezovskii were identified, and 7 postures, 65 acts and 32 behaviors of M. berezovskii were distinguished and recorded from this video data. These records cover all common daily behaviors of M. berezovskii. We found differences in the behavioral diversity index in different seasons, with the highest diversity indice in spring (H_spring = 0.8922, r_spring = 0.3850), followed by summer (H_summer = 0.7954, r_summer = 0.3432), autumn (H_autumn = 0.7775, r_autumn = 0.3355), and lastly, winter (H_winter = 0.5094, r_winter = 0.2198). The behaviors of males, females and juvenile were significantly different. Three types of behaviors were not recorded in juvenile (tagging behavior, elimination behavior, and self-directed). Females performed more self-directed behaviors, and males displayed unique marking behaviors. The behavioral diversity index of females (H_females = 0.6338) was greater than males (H_males = 0.5814), and lowest for juvenile (H_juvenile = 0.3816). Among habitat types, the behavioral diversity index of M. berezovskii in mixed broadleaf-conifer forest was the highest, and the ingestive behavior is the predominant behavior displayed, regardless of habitat type.
Conclusion: This study provides the behavioral spectrum and a behavior spectrum and PAE coding system of wild M. berezovskii for the first time. Our results provide vital foundational data paving the way to further research on behavioral ecology and conservation management of M. berezovskii.

Aim: Global climate change and anthropogenic impacts are placing enormous pressures on coastal ecosystems, and networks of marine protected areas have been recognized as an effective means of dealing with these dual pressures. However, there have been few investigations of biodiversity and connectivity of marine protected areas, in particular a lack of studies at the multispecies level. As one of the most biologically rich regions in China and an important contributor to China’s rapid socio-economic development, a number of protected areas have been established in the East China Sea at the end of the last century, but not much research has been conducted on biodiversity and connectivity to support the conservation and sustainable development.
Methods: In this study, six national marine protected areas were selected in the East China Sea, including Chengzhou Island National Marine Park (CZD), Shenhu Bay National Nature Reserve (SHW), Meizhou Island National Marine Park (MZD), Haitan Bay National Marine Park in Pingtan (PTD), Dongtou National Marine Park (DTD) and Yuhuan National Marine Park (YH). Water samples were collected from sandy coast. Environmental DNA was amplified with MiFish-U primers and high-throughput sequencing was performed by Illumina NovaSeq. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance was performed to determine the differences in community composition among protected areas. Network analysis was performed to assess robustness within each marine protected area.
Results: A total of 71 samples were obtained, including 5,069,193 reads and 46,309 MOTUs, from six protected areas in different seasons. Further analysis revealed that the abundance of MOTUs shared between protected areas accounted for more than 40% of the total MOTUs abundance. Although the environments differed significantly among protected areas, there were no spatial differences in biodiversity and community structure among protected areas (P > 0.05), and only seasonal differences observed. DTD, SHW and YH had a more complex network structure, while MZD and PTD were relatively simpler.
Conclusion: The results of the study suggest that there is a strong connectivity among these protected areas, which has the potential to establish a network of marine protected areas. The community network structures of the protected areas reveal that the protection effects vary from different protected areas, which may be related to the size and management of the protected areas. This study not only provides a reference for the study of nearshore community connectivity in the East China Sea, but also offers direct support for the management and construction of protected areas network in East China Sea.

Aims: Qilianyu Island, situated within the northeastern region of the Xisha Islands, harbors rich coral reef ecosystems. However, overfishing and habitat degradation have led to a significant decline in coral reef fish resources. To aid in the conservation and management of these resources, this study aimed to summarize the current composition of coral reef fish on Qilianyu Island and short-term species dynamics.
Methods: A continuous survey of coral reef fish from 2018 to 2023 was conducted on Qilianyu Island, utilizing data compiled from various research methods, including diving surveys, fishing logs, underwater videos, and environmental DNA analysis. Fish species were categorized based on feeding habits (herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores) and individual size (small, medium, and large). Human disturbance impacts were assessed using classification diversity and similarity indices.
Results: Since 2017, a total of 412 coral reef fish species have been identified on Qilianyu Island, representing 2 classes, 16 orders, 60 families, and 168 genera. Perciformes comprised the highest number of species (320), with Labridae being the most abundant family (47 species). Small fish species dominated the coral reef fish community, while carnivorous fish being the most prevalent in terms of diet. However, there has been a notable decrease in the proportion of large and medium-sized fish, as well as carnivorous species, from 2017-2020 compared to 2021-2023, accompanied by a significant increase in small and herbivorous fish. The dissimilarity indices between the two periods revealed changes in species composition and diversity. The study revealed that herbivorous fish exhibited the highest similarity, with a moderate level of similarity observed, indicating relatively stable composition over time. Conversely, small fish displayed the lowest similarity, suggesting significant variability in their presence between time periods. Large fish showed dissimilarity, indicating notable shifts in their abundance and composition. Furthermore, dominant fish species exhibited a lower number of large and small fish species compared to rare fish species, suggesting a more diverse composition among less abundant species. Additionally, dominant fish species had fewer carnivorous species but a higher number of herbivorous species compared to rare fish species, indicating potential impacts on trophic interactions within the community. Moreover, both Delta+ and Lambda+ indices decreased during the two time periods, suggesting a decline in overall species turnover and evenness over time, potentially reflecting ongoing disturbances to the coral reef ecosystem.
Conclusions: Our study reveals the coral reef fish community of Qilianyu Island has undergone significant changes due to overfishing and habitat degradation, leading to altered fish species composition and succession patterns. The study provides essential data for predicting future trends in fish species succession within Xisha Coral Reefs and offers insights into the conservation and restoration of these ecosystems.

Aims: Ground-active arthropods play a crucial role in the decomposition of organic material in terrestrial ecosystems, yet little is known about how seasonal variations influence dung arthropod communities.
Methods: This study conducted a field experiment in Inner Mongolian grasslands to investigate the composition dynamics of the arthropod communities in horse dung excreted during different seasons and analyze their relationship with environmental factors.
Results: We found that: (1) Initial water content did not significantly differ across spring, summer, and autumn, but organic matter content was significantly lower in summer dung compared to spring and autumn, while pH was significantly lower in autumn compared to spring and summer. (2) Abundance and group numbers of dung arthropods were significantly higher in autumn horse dung on day 3 and 360 of the decomposition compared to spring horse dung. Similarly, the abundance and species number of dung beetle communities on day 3 and 7 of the decomposition were significantly higher in autumn dung compared to summer. Abundance and generic numbers of Staphylinidae were also substantially higher in autumn dung on day 3 and 7 of the decomposition compared to spring and summer.
Conclusion: Early stage decomposition of horse dung is influenced by organic matter and water content, shaping arthropod community composition. Later stages of decomposition are predominantly regulated by soil temperature and moisture. These findings provide a foundation for further research on the complex interplay between seasonal factors and arthropod dynamics during dung decomposition in Inner Mongolian grasslands.

Aim: Precipitation and biodiversity are the key factors to maintain the balance and stability of desert steppe ecosystem in arid areas. It is of great theoretical and practical significance to study the plant diversity, microbial diversity and their relationship in desert steppe under the background of precipitation change.
Methods: In this paper, the desert steppe in Yanchi, Ningxia was taken as the research object. Five precipitation gradients were simulated by canopy and drip irrigation techniques, which were 33%, 66%, 100% (CK), 133% and 166% of normal rainfall (recorded as R33, R66, RCK, R133, R166). The effects of precipitation changes on plant diversity and microbial diversity in desert steppe were comprehensively analyzed.
Results: The results showed that: (1) Reduced precipitation (R66) significantly reduced the diversity and evenness of plant communities, and increased precipitation (R133) significantly increased the richness of plant communities (P < 0.05). (2) The Shannon-Wiener index, Simpson index, Ace index of bacterial community and Ace index of fungal community increased significantly with the increase of precipitation, and the change of precipitation had a significant effect on the Shannon-Wiener index and Simpson index of fungal community (P < 0.05). (3) The water addition treatment had a significant effect on the beta diversity of soil microbial community. (4) There was a significant positive correlation between bacteria and soil carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and carbon-to-phosphorus ratio (P < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between fungi and soil carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, carbon-to-phosphorus ratio and nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio (P < 0.01). (5) Plant community diversity was significantly positively correlated with bacterial Shannon-Wiener index and significantly negatively correlated with bacterial Simpson index, Ace index and fungal Ace indexs (P < 0.05).
Conclusion: Precipitation changes significantly affect plant diversity and microbial diversity in desert steppe, and there is a close relationship between plant and microbial diversity, which not only provides a reference for simulating and predicting the response and feedback of desert steppe ecosystem to climate change, but also provides a scientific basis for ecological protection and restoration in the region.

Background & Aims: The continuous loss of biodiversity has become one of the most serious environmental challenges in the world, the next 7 years will be the key to halt and reverse biodiversity loss. The achievement of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) mechanism has brought new hope for global biodiversity governance, and provided a pathway to halt and reverse biodiversity loss trends. As the core element of the GBF, the 30 by 30 target successfully adopted with the support of extensive actions of the international community and a large number of scientific researches. This paper reviews the origin and development process of the 30 by 30 target based on its global development trends and international policy promotion, and analyzes the change and development of its key elements such as area proportion, spatial extension, protection effectiveness of the protected area (PA) system, and inclusive management methods in PA. Combined with the successful experience of existing international processes, this paper explores the path to achieve the 30 by 30 target through a large number of scientific research as well.
Results: The gradual increase in the 30 by 30 target from 10% to 30% has not yet met the expectations of the scientific community, but has contributed to the efforts of countries and the expansion of the global network of PA. Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), improving the quality of PA, and the involvement of stakeholders, such as indigenous peoples and local communities, can significantly strength the protection of land and sea. The pathway to achieve the 30 by 30 target including strong international policy guidance, firm and effective financial security, in-depth and rigorous scientific research, responsible national action and broad inclusive participation and collaboration of stakeholders. At the same time, we recognize that it has been less than seven years since it was expected to be achieved. To achieve the ambitious 30 by 30 target and truly halt and reverse the biodiversity loss and decline, there are several challenges, including expand the PA system while improving quality; overcome the gap of PA survey data and the limited monitoring measures; the limitations of understanding the marine PA; the exploration of inclusive management methods and the integration of national goals at the global scale. We recommend that the quality of PA should be paid more attention than quantitative targets, strengthen PA monitoring to address data gaps, raise awareness of the importance of marine PA, and explore inclusive management approaches for PA, and strengthen the integration and implementation of the global target at the national scale.
Conclusion & Recommendation: The 30 by 30 target is not only a politically driven goal, but its research, consultation and implementation process also reflect new perspectives on the integration of science, traditional knowledge and international policy systems, reflecting emerging scientific insights, social values and global challenges, prompting a phased change in the relationship between people and nature, and between people, and contributing to a new understanding of PA networks and other protected regions.

After the victory in the China’s Resistance War Against Japan, in 1946, American botanists Elmer Drew Merrill and Egbert Hamilton Walker proposed the compilation of the Flora of China jointly by China and the United States. This proposal received enthusiastic support from Chinese botanist Hsen-Hsu Hu, who initiated the planning, organized personnel, and began fundraising efforts. However, due to the prevailing political situation, the project was not implemented at the time. Nonetheless, this can be regarded as the inception of the collaborative effort that culminated in the joint compilation of the Flora of China in 1988.