Background & Aim: As a critical research area under the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), urban green spaces play a key role in maintaining the ecological stability of cities and improving the quality of life of residents. However, the compound pressures of habitat fragmentation, invasive alien species and environmental pollution brought about by large-scale global urban expansion have made the conservation of biodiversity in urban green spaces an urgent issue in global ecological governance.This paper focuses on the biodiversity of urban green space under high intensity artificial intervention, systematically analyzes its conceptual connotation and research scope, reviews the research progress in monitoring technology, functional synergy, landscape optimization and management strategy, and points out the shortcomings of the existing research and the future direction. 

Progress: Research indicates that urban green spaces serve as vital infrastructure for enhancing the resilience of ecosystem services, facilitating species migration and dispersal, and improving climate adaptation. Their biodiversity conservation requires integrated strategies focusing on ecological connectivity restoration and multi-functional synergistic optimization.However, the current research still faces bottlenecks such as fragmentation of monitoring technology system, disconnection of cross-scale planning and lagging governance mechanism. In the future, it is necessary to build an intelligent monitoring system and a comprehensive database, develop multi-objective synergistic models, promote biodiversity-oriented green space system planning, and innovate a multifaceted governance mechanism. 

Prospects: Through interdisciplinary integration and international cooperation, the conservation of urban green space biodiversity will be deeply embedded in the governance of land space, and the synergistic path of urbanization and biodiversity conservation will be explored, so as to provide a scalable ecological restoration plan for the realization of the global “ 3030” goal, and provide a scientific decision-making paradigm for the sustainable symbiosis of urban ecosystems in the context of the Anthropocene.

Aims & Background: South Dianchi National Wetland Park, which is an important wintering and stopover site for migratory birds in the East Asia–Australia migratory corridor, was used as a research target. The wetland ecosystem has been degraded and the biodiversity declined due to the human activities such as the encirclement of the lake and the construction of wave breakwaters. 

Methods: This study conducted case analysis, describing how to protect the wetland ecosystem and repair the damaged wetland habitats and woodland habitats in terms of determining protection and restoration objectives, dividing ecological zones, removing wave breakwaters, connecting the water system, modifying the forest. In addition, this paper systematically summarized the experience accumulated in design, implementation, construction, operation and management of the wetland park and reflects on the key tasks that need to be strengthened in the future. The Jaccard similarity index and G–F index were also used to compare the changes in bird species diversity before and after park construction 

Results: After the completion, the biodiversity of the wetland park has been enhanced, with the Jaccard similarity index reaching 0.83 which shows high similarity in community composition and low disturbance of the original bird community by the park construction. The G–F index rose from 0.7 to 0.8, and the D_F index increased from 13.83 to 21.16. Both forest bird and waterbird populations have seen growth, with newly recorded species being predominantly winter visitor, original design intent has been realized. Suggestions & Perspectives: we suggest that the future work should be strengthened in the aspects of biodiversity monitoring and assessment, the formulation of wetland park management regulations and operation and maintenance etc.

Background & Aims: Global biodiversity hotspot cities are where urban development and biodiversity conservation come into conflict, playing a critical role in maintaining biodiversity balance both within and beyond their regions. However, there has been no dedicated study focusing on Chinese cities within global biodiversity hotspots. This research is based on Target 12 of the COP15 and Priority Action 18 of the China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030). This research examines the biodiversity conservation policies of 16 Chinese cities with populations exceeding one million (hereafter referred to as "hotspot cities") within global biodiversity hotspot regions. The analysis focuses on five key aspects: (1) biodiversity conservation planning and sustainable utilization plans, (2) urban biodiversity survey, monitoring, and assessment, (3) habitat restoration and ecological corridor construction, (4) the connection between urban residents and nature as well as their health and well-being, and (5) urban ecosystem functions and services. By comparing these conservation policies with international case cities, the study identifies existing challenges and proposes optimization directions to support biodiversity-friendly urban development while balancing ecological protection and high-quality urban growth. 

Review Results: The findings reveal that both Chinese and international hotspot cities face common challenges, including a lack of awareness of their unique ecological positioning, insufficient biodiversity-inclusive long-term urban planning, and a general scarcity of biodiversity monitoring data. Additionally, Chinese cities exhibit specific issues such as limited coverage and single-method approaches in urban biodiversity monitoring, insufficient attention to biodiversity-related public experiences and supporting infrastructure, and inadequate focus on the provision of urban ecosystem services. 

Optimization trends: Future enhancements to urban biodiversity conservation policies in these hotspot cities should prioritize the followings: (1) Prioritizing the development of spatial planning for biodiversity conservation; (2) Exploring the integrated application of multi-source data monitoring technologies; (3) Standardizing multi-dimensional approaches to urban biodiversity experiences; (4) Promoting synergistic enhancement of urban biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services.

Background & Aims: Nature-based Solutions (NbS) offer multiple environmental, social and economic benefits. They play an important role in addressing climate change and achieving sustainable development. Enhancing urban ecosystems through strategies that “work with nature” is now widely practiced by cities globally and is crucial for achieving Target 12 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. 

Methods: In this paper, we summarized the theoretical framework of NbS and used the habitat garden initiative in Changning District, Shanghai as a case study. We systematically analyzed the design and operational modes, and network construction methods of urban microhabitats. Furthermore, we explored the achievements and limitations of habitat gardens, and suggested future research and practical directions for urban microhabitats in high-density urban areas, guided by national urban biodiversity conservation strategies. 

Results: The habitat garden initiative in Changning District, Shanghai has explored three key innovations: (1) Strengthening the networking scale effect among scattered microhabitats in dense urban areas; (2) Establishing a model of community governance with active resident participation; and (3) Forming collaborative partnerships that benefits all stakeholders. However, challenges remain, such as inconsistent biodiversity monitoring, an overemphasis on residential green spaces, and inadequate funding plans. As the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework progresses, restoring urban habitats and ecological networks will become increasingly crucial. 

Suggestion & Perspectives: Guided by the NbS framework and principles, cities should establish a cross-departmental and inclusive governance platforms to provide support urban microhabitats and ecological networks. To increase the appeal of NbS and urban biodiversity conservation, three measures should be implemented: improving scientific monitoring systems, expanding design patterns across various climate zones, and developing diverse funding mechanisms.

Background: Biodiversity loss has become one of the most serious environmental challenges in the world, and how to effectively conserve and enhance biodiversity in urban development has become an urgent issue. The KMGF under the CBD provides a solution for urban biodiversity conservation and enhancement. 

Purpose: To identify the requirements for urban biodiversity conservation set out in the Kunming Framework and the upgrading of urban biodiversity conservation in the process of building green and high-quality urban development in China. 

Results: China has formed a series of compliance mechanisms and a multisectoral collaboration model based on municipal housing and construction departments, showing a research trend of multidisciplinary crossover and extensive cooperation between the government and academia, and responding mainly to Action Goal 12. China adopts the path of synergistic urban green high-quality development and biodiversity conservation, and iterative advances green high-quality development modes. The eastern region is the centralized distribution area of the representative cities, and the distribution of the representative cities of the three modes of garden cities, forest cities, and park cities overlaps considerably; the biodiversity conservation and enhancement of China's urban biodiversity The main tasks reflect the characteristics of continuous optimization and high integration, with bottom-line indicators for control and constraints, and oriented indicators as implementation tools for construction guidance, mainly from the perspective of incorporating into the mainstream of urban development, significantly improving the area, quality and connectivity of urban green space, and improving human health and well-being, and ultimately from the perspective of landscape, ecosystems, species, and social participation in the diversity of the four levels. Twelve tasks focus on Goal 12 of the KMGF, and seven other tasks are synergized with it. 

Conclusion: In the context of green and high-quality development and the continued practice of the urban model, we should first consolidate the target system for urban biodiversity conservation and enhancement from the perspective of compliance, strengthen the mainstreaming of conservation, and establish a more comprehensive and effective coordinating mechanism; pay attention to the linkage between urban development and biodiversity conservation in its entirety and in its entire cycle, and improve the linkage between urban development and the well-being and health of city dwellers, so as to explore and form the Chinese path of “biology, livability, and well-being”, which is characterized by green and high-quality development and the conservation and enhancement of urban biodiversity. Explore the formation of a distinctive Chinese path of high-quality green development and urban biodiversity conservation to enhance the trinity of “biology, livability and well-being”.

Background: Urban plant diversity is an important component of global biodiversity. Urban plant diversity conservation is one of the targets 6 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. 

Review Results: The characteristics of urban plant diversity based on the functional traits, species composition, species diversity and genetic diversity of urban plants were analyzed. The human factors of urban plant diversity were classified into direct influencing factors and indirect influencing factors. Focusing on the roles of different management bodies, such as the government, the community, and the participation of various parties, in the management of urban plant diversity, as well as the characteristics of different management targets, such as urban parks, urban protected areas, urban wastelands, community green spaces, green roofs, and home gardens, the management measures for urban plant diversity were discussed. 

Recommendations: It is recommended to formulate dynamic management measures to cope with changes in the factors affecting urban plant diversity, strengthen multi-party collaborative management to promote the conservation of urban plant diversity, and construct an urban green space protection network to enhance the value of ecosystem services, while strengthening research on the influencing factors of urban plant diversity and their mutual relations, and the scientific evaluation of urban plant diversity management effectiveness, in order to provide references for the conservation and management of urban plant diversity.

Aims: The potential of cities to preserve biodiversity is gaining increased recognition. Urban green spaces (UGS), such as urban parks, play a crucial role in this effort. Research indicates that the ability of UGS to support biodiversity depends on several factors, with management activities being a key determinant. However, the current highly intense and inappropriate management of urban parks continues to hinder biodiversity enhancement. Improving management faces complex challenges in the urban context. In this paper, we focus on the management practices of Chinese urban parks and aim to answer: How can urban parks effectively enhance biodiversity by adjusting management practices? 

Methods: A three-stage approach was employed in this study. First, the current regulatory framework for urban park management and biodiversity conservation was reviewed. Second, fieldwork was conducted to gather critical first-hand data through semi-structured interviews across ten urban parks and botanical gardens. Third, the data were analyzed to generate potential solutions, including a proposed management framework. 

Results: Urban parks serve multiple functions for city residents and are required to meet basic needs such as safety and recreation. Inherent tensions exist between human-oriented needs, such as sanitation and aesthetic landscaping, and biodiversity conservation. Despite these conflicts, it is still possible to improve certain management practices by minimizing trade-offs among competing objectives.

Conclusion: By identifying areas for improvement and exploring root causes, such as market failures, we propose a policy recommendation for certifying biodiversity-friendly urban parks and present a management framework to guide practical changes in park operations.

Background & Aim: Biodiversity is a valuable natural and public resource. To this point, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) has set 2030 global targets and a 2050 vision to guide the protection of global biodiversity. In order to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), it is important to study the political trends of urban biodiversity. This will enable the promotion of sustainable urban development. Therefore, this study aims to summarize topics related to urban biodiversity in previous Conference of the Parties (COP) decisions, including the health and well-being of urban biodiversity, how urbanization impacts biodiversity, and the participation of cities and local governments. Additionally, we reviewed how the targets related to urban biodiversity were developed, following them from when they were initially discussed to when the KMGBF was released. 

Results: China’s urban biodiversity conservation policies were primarily implemented in the fields of landscaping, spatial planning, climate change, and demonstration construction. Additionally, the newly published China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030) put forward new requirements for urban biodiversity conservation. Based on our analysis, we advised urban biodiversity conservation to: (1) Promote the function of ecosystem services based on conservation work; (2) Establish a specialized evaluation system for urban biodiversity conservation; (3) Become a part of the mainstream by forming an atmosphere of biodiversity conservation which is led by the government, echoed by enterprises, and participated in by all citizens. 

Conclusions: To enable China to achieve these goals, scientific ideas should be integrated into urban planning, and the government should lead enterprises and citizens in forming an atmosphere of biodiversity conservation. The conservation of urban biodiversity should align with the relevant resolutions of the KMGBF and the CBD, in addition to conforming with the policy update and practical work of China.

Aims: Leaving space for wildness as a critical initiative for maintaining biodiversity within national territorial space, holds significant importance in supporting the construction of ecologically sustainable and high-quality metropolitan regions. However, current metropolitan planning systems have not sufficiently addressed this issue, and it is particularly crucial to emphasize this aspect in the advancement of the ecological civilization system. 

Methods: This study adopts a historical perspective to examine the development of various types of natural ecological spaces in Chinese metropolitan areas over the past 30 years, focusing on both the overall metropolitan region and the urban core. It analyzes the increasingly prominent coexistence pattern between protected areas and built-up areas across metropolitan regions, as well as the evolution in core urban areas from emphasizing the coordinated expansion of green spaces and built-up areas to the focused development of large suburban parks that incorporate ecological conservation zones. 

Results: These findings collectively reveal the gradually strengthening trend of natural wilderness preservation in contemporary metropolitan areas. Furthermore, the study explores and envisions metropolitan planning under the framework of the ecological civilization system, addressing aspects such as conceptual adjustments, system development, and mechanism optimization. 

Conclusion: It advocates for the exploration of systematic space for wildness within metropolitan planning frameworks, promoting the development of relevant governance tools to support the future emergence of a new metropolitan form characterized by “urban-wilderness coexistence”.

Aims: The restoration of estuarine wetlands and the assessment of how restoration techniques impact habitat and bird diversity are essential for urban biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. This aligns with the objectives of the China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030) and contributes to the implementation of the United Nations’ Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. By integrating machine learning with field surveys, this study evaluates the effects of various ecological restoration techniques on habitat conditions and bird diversity before and after restoration in the North Branch of the Yangtze River Estuary. 

Methods: By comparing and analyzing existing ecological and environmental problems in the study area, targeted restoration plans were developed, and integrated ecological restoration technologies were implemented. After project completion, we employed machine learning and field investigation methods to assess the restoration status of the Yangtze River Estuary habitat and bird diversity, comparing conditions before environmental degradation and after ecological restoration. 

Results: The findings indicate that Spartina alterniflora control, mudflat construction, tidal creek construction, and native salt marsh vegetation restoration are key methods for enhancing habitat heterogeneity and increasing avian diversity in estuarine wetlands. Specifically, Spartina alterniflora control and mudflat creation cover 12.97 ha. Reed (Phragmites australis) vegetation restoration covered 13.5 ha. Tidal creek measures extended 600 m in length. Bird diversity in reed planting areas showed the greatest recovery, with species richness, abundance, and diversity indices in winter and spring exceeding those recorded in 2018 before ecological degradation. The highest record included 18 species and 178 individuals. In tidal creek construction areas, spring bird species, abundance and Shannon-Wiener diversity index recovered to pre-degradation levels, with a maximum of 13 species and 68 individuals recorded. Spartina alterniflora control areas showed a slower recovery of bird diversity, with a maximum of 13 species and 68 individuals recorded, still lagging behind pre-degradation levels. 

Conclusion: This study compares and evaluates the effects of various restoration techniques on estuarine wetland habitat and bird diversity enhancement. By conducting a comparative analysis of domestic and international restoration projects, this study offers valuable experiences and references for future restoration efforts in China. Furthermore, it provides scientific support for the systematic biodiversity assessment, urban biodiversity conservation, and sustainable use of degraded estuarine wetlands following integrated ecological restoration.

Aims: Global biodiversity is under serious threat due to the intensification of climate change and human activities in the ecosystems. As a result, governments and the public are increasingly focused on implementing measures to mitigate biodiversity loss. In recent years, insect hotels have emerged as an innovative approach to biodiversity conservation in urban park management, attracting significant attention and being gradually adopted. The primary purpose of insect hotels is to provide breeding, nesting, and overwintering sites for insects—particularly solitary bees—in urban environments. By doing so, insect hotels contribute to maintaining species diversity and population stability. However, a comprehensive understanding regarding of the effectiveness and challenges of insect hotels in conserving urban insect diversity is still lacking. 

Progresses: To address this, we review the global research status of insect hotels, including aspects such as the number of studies, geographical distribution, targeted species, and the materials and specifications of nesting tubes. 

Prospects: We summarize the positive impacts (pollination, pest control, and popular science education) and limitations (low occupancy rate, invasive alien species, increased harm from natural enemies and pathogens) of insect hotels in promoting solitary bees diversity in urban environments and propose specific improvement strategies. This study aims to provide a scientific foundation and practical guidance for sustainable development of urban biodiversity.

Aims: Biodiversity data is a fundamental component of reaching global biodiversity conservation goals. It is therefore necessary to efficiently and systematically monitor biodiversity to support the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) implementation. To reach these objectives, citizen science is a powerful approach, enabling countries to promote diverse and systematic biodiversity monitoring. However, there are few studies on how effectively citizen science has been applied to monitoring urban biodiversity. To fill this gap in the literature, the goal of our study was to develop a better understanding of the status and strength of urban biodiversity citizen science as well as the features that affect public involvement. 

Methods: We collected 140 citizen science projects across the globe that were related to urban biodiversity monitoring. The temporal, geographical, and taxonomic coverage of these projects were analyzed to review how citizen science has been applied monitoring urban biodiversity. Additionally, Maslow’s need theory was used to summarize motivations and barriers affecting engagement in biodiversity monitoring. Finally, the profile of the “citizen scientists” was described to reveal their demographics, customs, and preferences, enabling us to generate strategies to promote these projects moving forward. 

Results: Urban biodiversity citizen science has attracted attention in developed countries such as Europe and America, and in China it has been applied in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, Yangtze River Delta, and Pearl River Delta. The success of these transregional projects demonstrates how viable citizen science was for large-scale biodiversity monitoring. In China, urban biodiversity citizen science was deployed later than other countries, its application peaked between 2019 and 2020, while its benefits have been increasingly recognized. These projects have covered a wide range of biological taxa, and they have focused on native species conservation, biosecurity, and typical urban biodiversity threats such as roadkill and bird collisions. Citizen scientists in biodiversity monitoring projects had consistent demographic characteristics, habits, and participation preferences. In turn, these characteristics and motivations were used to propose specific strategies to improve the participation experience and enhance the project sustainability in citizen science, particularly in the forms of cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social engagement. 

Conclusion: This review revealed the promising development of urban biodiversity citizen science, especially in light of its current applications and our global needs for biodiversity conservation policy. However, in order to achieve the KMGBF goals and targets, it is necessary to promote a standardized and scaled development of these citizen science programs. Future studies should explore localized pathways to increase the inclusivity of citizen science. Additionally, projects should focus on aligning their objectives with data needs related to the KMGBF, and it is necessary to enhance data sharing to support decision-making and scientific research.

Aims: Reconstruction of near-nature forests is an important approach to accelerate the recovery of urban vegetation and forest restoration. However, the spatial and temporal dynamics of species diversity, canopy structure, and biomass during the subtropical forest restoration remain unclear, especially in highly urbanized regions. 

Methods: Based on long-term subtropical near-nature forest plant community that planted with native tree species in 2006 in Minhang District of the megacity Shanghai, we did the resurvey of plant community in 2023, and compared with the compositional changes of plant community through five historical surveys of core plots from 2007 to 2023. Aboveground biomass and the relations among aboveground biomass, species richness and tree height across temporal and spatial scales were analyzed using general linear regression. 

Results: Along with near-nature forest succession, woody plant richness increased from 11 in 2007 to 18 in 2023, and stem density increased at early stages and then decreased. The aboveground biomass increased from 3.51 t/ha in 2007 to 208.83 t/ha in 2023. Evergreen tree species such as Camphora officinarum and Quercus myrsinifolia gradually became the dominant species. Aboveground biomass showed significant positive correlations with species richness (P < 0.01) and mean tree height (P < 0.001), and a significant negative correlation with stem density (P < 0.01). When comparing the compositional changes over space, at three scales of 5 m, 10 m and 20 m, the relations between aboveground biomass and stem density remained highly significantly positive (P < 0.001), but the relations with mean tree height shifted from no significant at 5 m scale to significantly negative at 10 m (P < 0.05) and 20 m (P < 0.05) scales. 

Conclusion: During the 17-year subtropical forest restoration, the model of near-nature forest construction has clearly exhibited its efficacy in accelerating the succession process. These preliminary findings suggest that, during the construction and restoration of near-nature forests, we should pay attention to the dominant role of native tree species, and consider diverse species composition to effectively promote plant diversity and carbon storage.

Aims: Urban forests serve as key reservoirs of biodiversity within cities. Yet, the ecological strategies of urban mammals and their responses to human activity remain understudied. This study aimed to: (1) document mammal species composition in the urban forests of central Chongqing; (2) analyze the functional traits structuring mammal communities; and (3) assess how native mammals respond to direct human presence and to free-roaming domestic cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). 

Methods: From October 2019 to April 2024, we deployed 45 infrared camera traps across 29 sites in central Chongqing, accumulating 5,814 effective camera days (mean ± SD: 200.48 ± 20.5 days per site). Functional traits— body size, dispersal ability, diet, life history, and habitat breadth—were used to construct a two-dimensional functional trait space. We applied kernel density estimation to analyze diel activity patterns and evaluated the temporal overlap between wildlife and human activity, including domestic cats and dogs. We further used Wilcoxon rank-sum tests to assess differences in species richness between sites with and without direct human activity. 

Results: We recorded 13 mammal species from 3 orders and 7 families, including two nationally protected species: The small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) and the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). Species with moderate body size, intermediate dispersal ability, and omnivorous diets clustered near the center of functional trait space, indicating convergence in adaptive strategies. In contrast, species at the periphery of trait space were more sensitive to human disturbance. For instance, wild boar (Sus scrofa) displayed more diurnal activity in areas without direct human presence, while reeves’ muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) exhibited compressed activity windows in areas frequented by cats, and temporal shifts in response to dog activity. Notably, domestic cats and dogs showed higher temporal overlap with native mammals than did direct human activity. 

Conclusion: Mammalian responses to human activity in urban forests are complex. Indirect anthropogenic pressures— especially those mediated by domestic cats and dogs—may pose greater risks to native wildlife than low-intensity human recreation. These findings provide important insights for urban biodiversity conservation and management.

Aims: Urban green spaces are crucial for biodiversity conservation, and university campuses, as microcosms of urban built environments, are crucial for enhancing the quality of micro urban green spaces and conserving biodiversity. However, existing studies on campus biodiversity often lack continuous spatial and temporal information, and fail to clarify the relationships between species and the internal structure of green spaces. This gap may hinder the optimization of small green spaces, ultimately limiting the achievement of targets set forth in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) and the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030). 

Methods: This study focused on the bird species of Tsinghua University campus, employing generalized linear models and redundancy analysis to investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of bird distribution and analyze the associations between bird community composition and green space characteristics. 

Results: The study revealed that birds in university campus green spaces exhibited concentrated distributions with seasonal variations. Bird community composition was associated with the woody food plants richness, shrub evenness, grass coverage, artificial grass coverage, and tree coverage. Among these factors, woody food plants richness promoted bird abundance, species richness, and diversity, while shrub evenness promoted bird richness and diversity. Tree and artificial grass coverage promoted bird abundance only when both are simultaneously below 37.5% and 39.8%, respectively. Grass coverage negatively impacted bird richness and diversity. Furthermore, different bird residency types displayed distinct habitat preferences: Migratory birds in autumn were solely associated with vegetation structure, whereas resident and wintering birds were jointly influenced by both the physical characteristics and vegetation structure of green spaces. 

Conclusion: This study suggests that, when designing micro urban green spaces in alignment with natural principles, tree and artificial grass coverage should be kept below 40% simultaneously, while enhancing the woody food plants richness and shrub evenness. Additionally, increasing natural grass coverage and vertical vegetation is recommended. This study provides both quantitative and qualitative recommendations for creating near-natural micro urban green spaces, providing a scientific foundation for achieving the goals of KMGBF and the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030) in improving urban blue and green spaces quality.

Aims: Apoidea insects are crucial biological resources, providing bee products for humans and pollination services for ecosystems etc. However, global Apoidea resources are declining, highlighting the urgent need for monitoring and conservation efforts. Despite the availability of various methods to survey and monitor Apoidea diversity, there remains uncertainty regarding the most appropriate method and the taxa they effectively monitor.

Methods: The study site is located at Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences where biodiversity is high. Three methods commonly used for Apoidae monitoring were employed: transects, Malaise traps, and pan traps. The richness and abundances of Apoidae were recorded and the effectiveness was compared to determine the best monitoring approach.

Results: Through one-year systematic monitoring, a total of 14,896 Apoidea insects were collected, including Apidae, Halictidae, Megachilidae, Colletidae, Sphecidae, Crabronidae, and Ampulicidae, which belonged to 7 families, 54 genera, and 345 species. The rarefaction curve showed adequate sampling coverage for all three methods, and there were differences in the major taxa collected. The transects collected 6 families, 33 genera, and 133 species, of which Apidae, Megachilidae, and Halictidae had high diversity, including 3 dominant species and 44 rare species. The Malaise traps collected 7 families, 50 genera, and 260 species, of which Crabronidae, Megachilidae, and Halictidae had high diversity, including 6 dominant species and 130 rare species. The pan traps collected 6 families, 29 genera, and 122 species, of which the diversity of Crabronidae was high, but Apidae had the most individuals, including 6 dominant species and 49 rare species.

Conclusion: The results demonstrate that different methods are effective for monitoring different Apoidea taxa and species. Combing multiple methods enhances the detection of Apoidea diversity. This study provides valuable methodological options for surveying Apoidea species and population monitoring, and also offer baseline data for the effective conservation of Apoidea resources.

Background: Ecologists have long been interested in the geographical distribution patterns of biodiversity and the underlying mechanisms. The evolutionary speed hypothesis (ESH) is one of the mainstream explanations for the latitudinal biodiversity gradient pattern. This hypothesis suggests that the higher temperatures in low-latitude regions accelerate speciation rates and thus increase the species richness through three mechanisms. Specifically, (1) high temperatures shorten generation times, thereby increase the effective evolutionary time (the number of effective generations per unit of absolute time); (2) high temperatures increase mutation rates and thus genetic variations—the raw material for natural selection; (3) high temperatures accelerate the process of natural selection. Though this hypothesis is widely debated based on observed data from nature, rigorous tests are rare.

Progress:The experimental evolution approach has been recently adopted to test specific mechanisms for ESH; and those studies were performed under well-controlled environmental temperatures. This article presents a comprehensive review of these studies about the consequences of temperature for mutation rates, selection and adaptive diversification. The generality of conclusions from those studies needs to be tested in more complex systems.

Prospects: The experimental evolution approach will further deepen our understanding of the evolutionary speed hypothesis and the mechanisms underlying the geographical patterns of biodiversity, and give insights for species conservation and disease control under climate warming.

Aims:Guangdong Province is one of the provinces with the high diversity of Chiroptera in China and is also one of the global hotspots for chiropteran distribution. To comprehensively understand the current diversity resources of Chiroptera in Guangdong Province, and to provide basic data for future biodiversity research and conservation practices, the timely updating of species checklists and the availability and accuracy of molecular barcode databases, even those based on local species specimens, are necessary.

Methods:This study was based on our long-term survey results over 30-years effort, combined with a summary of historical records and literature on Guangdong Province, we aimed to update the chiropteran species checklist for the province. Additionally, we selectively utilized our specimen resources that collected by our research team over 30-years to specifically construct their molecular barcode database via molecular barcoding technology. We provided primers and PCR systems for molecular barcoding technology that cover the known species of Chiroptera, facilitating future use by researchers.

Results:As of July 2024, Guangdong Province had recorded 61 species of Chiroptera across 8 families and 24 genera, making its species diversity second only to Yunnan Province, which had 82 species across 8 families and 31 genera. Its diversity accounted for 43.2% of the bats in China. Among these, the family Vespertilionidae had the highest diversity with 37 species, while the genus Myotis was the most diverse genus with 11 species. We compiled 11 pairs of universal primers for the Cytb gene and 9 pairs for the COI gene. Based on molecular sequence data primarily obtained from samples that historically collected in this province, we established a reference barcoding database for the 61 Chroptera species in Guangdong Province.

Conclusions:This study not only revises and updates the species checklist of Chiroptera in Guangdong Province, but also establishes the molecular barcoding database. It could provide accurate and convenient basic data for the molecular identification of Chiroptera species in the province and the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. We hope this will benefit future biodiversity research and conservation practice.

Background & Aim: Higher plant diversity is known to promote ecosystem functions, with the positive relationship typically attributed to plant-plant interactions. However, a growing body of literature has revealed the crucial role of soil microorganisms in regulating the relationships between plant diversity and ecosystem functions.

Progresses: This review first summarizes how plant diversity affects soil microbes and how soil microbes, in turn, influence ecosystem functions. It then focuses on the specific soil microbial functional groups and summarizes the research progress on how they mediate the relationships between plant diversity and productivity. Taken together, soil microorganisms may indirectly affect ecosystem functions by responding to changes in plant diversity, or they may also directly mediate the interactions between plant diversity and ecosystem functions.

Perspectives: Future studies should prioritize the pathways through which soil microbes regulate the relationships between plant diversity and ecosystem functions, as well as quantify the relative contribution of soil microbes and environmental factors to these relationships. This will provide new insights into understanding the impacts of biodiversity loss in the context of global climate change.

Aims:The color change of flowers during their blooming process can serve as a cue that guides pollinators to preferentially visit pre-change color flowers. However, it remains unclear whether this color change influences nectar robbers’ behavior.

Methods:To explore whether nectar robbers prefer pre-change color flowers and the impact of nectar robbing on plant reproductive success, we used Lonicera calcarata (Caprifoliaceae) as the study subject. Its flowering period lasts for three days, during which the flower color changes from white to yellow and then to orange-red. We recorded the visitation behavior of flower-visiting insects in the field and calculated the frequencies of legitimate visits and nectar robbing. We also analyzed the nectar robbing rates of flowers of three colors in different populations, measured the morphological traits of normal and robbed flowers, assessed the nectar volume and sugar concentration in both normal and robbed flowers during blooming, and examined the total number of pollen grains and ovules in flower buds from normal and robbed flowers. Finally, we performed different artificial pollination treatments to calculate seed set.

Results:Flower visitors to L. calcarata included moths, butterflies, and bumblebees, among which bumblebees could both legitimately visit the flowers and rob nectar from flowers of different colors. The overall nectar robbing frequency was higher than the frequency of legitimate visits for bumblebees. Nectar robbing rates of L. calcarata varied across different populations, with the nectar robbing rate of orange-red and yellow flowers being significantly higher than that of white flowers. The floral traits of robbed flowers were smaller than normal flowers in general, especially the lip and anther size. The holes in nectar spurs of orange-red and yellow flowers were significantly larger than those in white flowers. In all the three phases, nectar robbing significantly reduced the nectar volume of one flower, but did not affect the nectar sugar concentration. There were no significant differences in the total number of pollen grains in the buds between robbed and normal flower, as well as the ovules. Seed sets of pollen grains from normal and robbed flowers pollinated on the stigmas of normal flowers were not significantly different. Likewise, the seed sets of pollen from normal flowers pollinated on the stigma of normal and robbed flowers showed no significant differences.

Conclusion:This study preliminarily indicates that nectar robbing bees, particularly bumblebees, do not preferentially visit pre-change color flowers. Nectar robbing reduces nectar secretion and it does not directly affect the plant’s female and male fitness. The influence of flower color change on flower-visiting insect behavior requires further and more sustained investigation.

Aims:The negative impacts of light pollution, resulting from excessive artificial light at night (ALAN), on various organisms and ecological processes, have garnered significant attention. However, the impact of ALAN on the frequency of invasive alien plants and its effects on plant community composition and the growth performance of both invasive alien and native species remain poorly understood.

Methods:We carried out a field investigation in Changchun City to compare areas with and without ALAN exposure, focusing on the frequency of invasive alien plants, the composition, and biodiversity of both invasive alien and native plant communities, as well as the average plant height and relative coverage of these plants.

Results:We found that: (1) ALAN did not significantly influence the frequency of invasive alien plants; (2) While ALAN did not significantly affect the diversity of invasive alien and native plant communities, it significantly increased the richness of invasive alien plants; (3) ALAN significantly enhanced the average height and relative cover of invasive alien plants and decreased the relative cover of native plants, but had no significant effect on the average height of native plants.

Conclusions:These results suggest that ALAN may further bolster the competitive advantage of invasive alien plants and increase their invasion risk. Therefore, future management strategies for plant invasion should incorporate ALAN as a potential contributing factor.

Background: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. It achieves this by subjecting, and if necessary, suspending, international trade in listed species to certain controls and regulations. The effective implementation of the Convention relies on the coordination and consistency of countries worldwide in terms of terminology comprehension, law enforcement, data collection and statistics, and policy formulation. However, due to legacy issues at the time of CITES’s signing, United Nations’ languages such as Chinese, Russian and Arabic are not working languages of CITES. Despite China’s four-decade implementation of CITES, with Chinese CITES authorities having translated the Convention text and other valid documents into Chinese for domestic dissemination, China’s participation in the formulation and implementation of regulations for international trade in wild fauna and flora remains contingent upon accurate comprehension and translation of CITES terminology and definitions in English. Terminology is the core concept in the formulation and implementation of policies and regulations, and it is also the foundation of rules. As a highly technical and operational international agreement, CITES has a comprehensive implementation system with a complex and intertwined set of rules. Investigating the translation and characteristics of terminology can provide an entry point for understanding the establishment and evolution of CITES regulations.

Main Content: This article traces the linguistic regulations at the time of CITES’ signing, lists important terms related to the conservation of endangered wild animals and plants and their translations in the CITES text and valid documents, and categorizes the CITES terms according to their nature and application scenarios. The definitions and explanations of CITES terms can be categorized into definitional, explanatory, and quotational according to their nature; and into scientific and definitional terms, regulatory and procedural terms, and cooperative and compliance terms according to their application scenarios. By using an online Large Language Model Moonshot AI, 14 terms with the most special English explanations and the greatest differences from common understanding were extracted from the 150 terms of the CITES glossary, and a comparison was made.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that the CITES terminology is primarily anchored in the Convention’s legal framework, embodying purpose-driven linguistic features tailored to regulate wildlife trade. However, divergences from common usage emerge through three distinctive dimensions: more detailed, specific, and operationally robust. When Parties inadequately grasp these terminological nuances during routine implementation of Convention obligations, such comprehension gaps may not only impede regulatory compliance but also precipitate operational ambiguities. In severe cases, it may even trigger or activate the Convention’s review and suspension mechanisms. Mastery of the categories and characteristics of CITES terminology aids in understanding the background, rule evolution, and operational execution of this so-called “Convention with teeth”. It includes compliance and enforcement measures, such as the prohibition of trade. Only with a comprehensive understanding can we effectively implement the Convention, regulate international trade in wild fauna and flora, and advance global biodiversity governance. Additionally, the characteristics and interpretations of CITES terminology also provide insights and references for formulating China’s wildlife protection and management laws and regulations, as well as related standards.

Aims:Xiangshan Bay is a significant fishery area in Zhejiang Province, characterized by abundant marine biodiversity. While previous studies have listed crabs (Decapoda: Branchyura) from this area, their findings often remain inconclusive, as they primarily focus on variation in macrobenthic and fishery community structure or responses to human activities. However, there is limited understanding of the species diversity and diagnostic characteristic of some rare crab species in Xiangshan Bay. Based on an extensive, long-period survey, this study aims to provide a comprehensive and scientific checklist of crabs from Xiangshan Bay.

Methods:The study involved investigations at 40 subtidal and 10 intertidal stations, covering almost the entire Xiangshan Bay. Of these stations, 10 subtidal and 3 intertidal stations focusing on macrobenthos were surveyed in May and November (2018-2021 and 2023). Additionally, surveys targeting macrobenthos and fishery resources were conducted in November (2022-2023) and February, May, and August (2023-2024). All crabs were separated from specimens and identified using the latest taxonomic literature.

Results:A total of 64 crab species, classified into 47 genera and 22 families, were identified. Among these, seven species were previously undocumented in Zhejiang Province: Ser mikawaensis, Rhizopa gracilipes, Shenius anomalus, Paradromia japonica, Benthopanope eucratoides, Trissoplax dentate, and Venitus latreillii. S. mikawaensis is a new record for Chinese waters, while R. gracilipes and S. anomalusare new record species for the East China sea. The diagnostic characteristics of these newly recorded species were described and illustrated.

Conclusion:This study reports significantly more crab species in Xiangshan Bay compared to previous research. It provides the first systematic checklist of crabs in the region, alongside detailed descriptions of the newly recorded species. These findings provide valuable reference material for conserving crab diversity and improving the taxonomic identification of crabs in Xiangshan Bay.

Aims:Lawns in airport environments play an important role in visual navigation, noise reduction, and soil erosion prevention. However, they can also provide shelter and foraging opportunities for birds, thereby increasing the risk of bird strikes. Selecting appropriate turf species is essential for effective bird strike prevention. This study aims to evaluate the effects of Buchloe dactyloides (buffalo grass) lawns on invertebrate diversity and abundance, exploring its potential to reduce bird foraging opportunities and lower bird strike risks.

Methods:From April to October 2023, we surveyed invertebrate diversity on six lawns at Beijing Capital International Airport (three weedy lawns and three buffalo grass lawns) using sweep netting and trapping methods. Specimens were identified to species level using taxonomic monographs. T-tests were used to assess the significance of differences in individual counts, family-level diversity, and species-level diversity between the two lawn types. The α diversity was evaluated using the Simpson dominance index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Pielou evenness index, and Margalef richness index. The Bray-Curtis distance was applied to assess invertebrate community similarity across different months and lawns types.

Results:A total of 4,395 invertebrate individuals were collected, belonging to six classes, 15 orders, 75 families, 101 genera, and 146 species. Among them, Diptera (flies) and Hemiptera (true bugs) exhibited the highest species richness and individual abundance, respectively. The shared dominant species between both lawn types included Geocoris pallidipennis, Psammotettix alienus, Nysius sp.1, and Trigonotylus caelestialium. In buffalo grass lawns, species diversity peaked in August, with two peaks in individual numbers observed in May and August. In weedy lawns, species diversity peaked in June and August, while individual abundance was highest in June. Although weedy lawns exhibited generally higher species diversity, individual abundance, and Margalef richness index compared to buffalo grass lawns, the differences were not statistically significant. This may be due to the sampling sites and the clustered distribution of collected samples. The Bray-Curtis similarity analysis showed that species composition similarity across all month-lawn combinations ranged from moderate to extreme dissimilarity. Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) clustering, based on Bray-Curtis distances, grouped samples from April to July into one cluster and samples from August to October into another. However, there was no clear grouping based on lawn type, indicating that temporal variation had a greater influence on community composition than lawn type.

Conclusion:This study suggests that buffalo grass lawns in airport environments may help reduce invertebrate abundance, thereby potentially decreasing bird foraging opportunities. However, due to limited sampling sites and range, the results were not statistically significant. Future studies should expand the sampling area and increase replicates to obtain more reliable results. Long-term monitoring and multi-year studies at airports in different regions would further clarify the effect of buffalo grass on invertebrate control, providing scientific evidence for bird strike prevention strategies.

Aims:Biodiversity is vital for ecosystem stability and human survival, yet it is facing unprecedented declines driven by climate change, pollution, and human activities. This review explores how frontier technologies—such as high- resolution remote sensing, genomics, big data, and artificial intelligence (AI)—can help mitigate global biodiversity loss by integrating monitoring and conservation practices. This study aims to systematically evaluate the practical applications of these technologies, quantify their contributions to species recovery and habitat protection, and identify key barriers to implementation, focusing on both Chinese and global contexts. Actionable strategies are proposed to enhance ecological restoration and foster sustainable human-nature coexistence, addressing the urgent need for innovative conservation solutions.

Methods:We conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature on frontier technologies in biodiversity conservation over the past decade, drawing from a broad range of scientific databases. Representative case studies from China, including efforts to protect key species and habitats, along with international examples such as tropical rainforest conservation, were analyzed to assess technological applications. Both qualitative synthesis and quantitative analysis were employed to examine the functionalities and impacts of these technologies, focusing on metrics such as monitoring accuracy, species population trends, and implementation challenges, providing a comprehensive understanding of their roles and limitations in conservation.

Review Results: Frontier technologies significantly enhance biodiversity conservation by improving monitoring precision, supporting species recovery, and strengthening habitat connectivity across diverse ecosystems. These technologies effectively reduce habitat degradation, increase population sizes for threatened species, and strengthen ecological networks in various regions. However, challenges persist, including difficulties in integrating diverse data sources, high costs associated with technology deployment, and limited international collaboration, particularly in resource-limited regions. These barriers hinder the widespread adoption and effectiveness of these technologies in achieving global conservation goals.

Conclusions:Frontier technologies play a critical role in advancing biodiversity conservation by bridging monitoring and protection efforts, as demonstrated by ecological improvements in China and worldwide. Their full potential is constrained by technical integration issues, financial limitations, and coordination gaps. We recommend standardized data protocols to enhance interoperability, reduce technology costs through innovative approaches, and foster global partnerships to overcome these obstacles. Future research should prioritize the development of intelligent, integrated systems to seamlessly connect monitoring with conservation actions. China’s successful conservation models provide replicable frameworks for global biodiversity restoration, supporting harmony between man and nature and addressing the biodiversity crisis effectively.

Aims:Assessing the impact of nitrogen-phosphorus imbalance inputs on the carbon sink capacity of subtropical forests is currently a hot topic. Maximum carboxylation rate (V_cmax) and maximum electron transport rate (J_max) are crucial parameters in the C₃ plant photosynthetic model (FvCB model), exploring the mechanisms underlying photosynthetic biochemical limitations in response to N and P deposition, which will help to improve the understanding of biodiversity conservation and management in the context of global change.

Methods:A six-year N and P addition experiment was conducted in an evergreen broad-leaved forest of Jiulianshan, Jiangxi Province. Six dominant tree species were selected to quantify V_cmax, J_max, leaf mass per area, leaf N and P content, and analyze correlations between photosynthetic parameters and leaf traits of saplings and adult trees under N and P addition.

Results:We found that addition of either N or P significantly altered photosynthetic parameters of saplings. Specifically, N addition significantly increased the J_max of saplings, while P addition significantly increased the V_cmax. However, combined N and P addition had no significant effects on V_cmax, J_max, and J_max/V_cmax, showing an antagonistic effect. In contrast, none of N and P treatments significantly affected V_cmax, J_max, and J_max/V_cmax in adult trees. During the transition from saplings to adult trees, V_cmax and J_max increased more than threefold. Furthermore, saplings exhibited species-specific responses to N and P addition. Schima superba and Castanopsis fargesii were more sensitive to N addition, Castanopsis carlesii was more sensitive to P addition, and Machilus breviflorawas more sensitive to combined N and P addition. Combined N and P addition significantly decreased the leaf mass per area (LMA) of saplings while increasing leaf nitrogen concent, whereas P addition significantly increased leaf nitrogen content in adult trees. However, leaf traits did not explain the variation in photosynthetic parameters.

Conclusions: These findings confirm the theoretical prediction that saplings were more responsive to nutrient inputs than adult trees, which may allocate more nutrient resources to reproduction and defense systems rather than altering photosynthetic biochemical limitations in response to N and P addition. The antagonistic effect of combined N and P addition on sapling photosynthetic parameters suggests that excessive nutrient supply led to nutrient allocation toward non-photosynthetic components, reducing the efficiency of the photosynthetic system. Clearly, N and P availability significantly alter the FvCB model parameters in an evergreen broad-leaved forest, with size-dependent and species-specific effects on photosynthetic biochemical limitations.

Aims:Reef-building corals are the framework organisms of coral-reef ecosystems, and their community structure plays a major role in biodiversity. The Tropic of Cancer is the northernmost distribution line of reef-building corals along the coast of China. However, there are relatively few studies on reef-building corals in high-latitude regions, and information on species diversity and community distribution characteristics in these areas remains unclear.

Methods:The National Nature Reserve for Marine Ecology of Guangdong Nanpeng Islands (hereinafter referred to as Nanpeng Islands Reserve) is one of the northernmost reserves in China with records of the distribution of reef-building corals. The diversity and distribution patterns of reef-building coral species in the protected area were investigated through diving surveys in June 2023 and June 2024.

Results:Our results show 34 species of reef-building corals are distributed in the Nanpeng Islands Reserve, belonging to 19 genera and 9 families. Most of these are massive and encrusting with Psammocora nierstraszi and P. profundacellaoccupying dominance. Reef-building corals exhibit typical high-latitude patchy community distribution characteristics, with non-reef-forming and low coverage within the protected area. Dingpeng Island has the highest average coverage of reef-building coral, followed by Nanpeng Island and Zhongpeng Island, with Qinpeng Island having the lowest coverage.

Conclusions:We investigate the species diversity and distribution characteristics of reef-building corals in the Nanpeng Islands Reserve. Our findings contribute to the scientific understanding of the current status of reef-building coral communities in the Nanpeng Islands Reserve. Additionally, we provide much needed data for the protection and research of coral communities in the northern margin of the South China Sea.

Aims:The Hexi Corridor serves as a critical ecological protection area in Northwest China. This study aims to investigate the fish diversity and resource status within the interior drainage systems of this region.

Methods:From April 2019 to October 2023, eight fishery resource surveys were conducted at 25 sampling sections across inland river basin of the Hexi Corridor. The relative importance index (IRI) was used to determine the dominant species of the population. Fish diversity was analyzed using the Margalef richness index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Simpson dominance index, and Pielou evenness index. The Bray-Curtis similarity coefficient was used to cluster and sort the distribution characteristics of fish. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and redundancy analysis (RDA) was employed to examine the gradient relationships between fish community composition and environmental factor using Canoco 5.0 software.

Results:A total of 9,743 fish belonging to 4 orders, 8 families, 20 genera and 29 species were identified. Among them, 12 species are indigenous, including Gymnocypris chilienensis and Schizopygopsis pylzovi, which are under Gansu Provincial protection. Schizopygopsis pylzovi was identified as a new recorded species in the interior drainage of Hexi Corridor, and four species, including Triplophysa yarkandensis and Silurus soldatovi, were classified as vulnerable or near-threatened under the Red List of Biodiversity of China. The fish populations were predominantly composed of small-sized species, with Gymnocypris chilienensis, Triplophysa hsutschouensis and Carassius cuvieri as the dominant species. Notable differences in dominant species were observed across different river systems and temporal intervals. The fish diversity in the inland river system of Hexi Corridor was generally low across the inland rivers. The Margalef richness index was the highest in summer (2.215), while the Simpson dominance index peaked in autumn at the 0.715. Both Shannon-Wiener diversity index (1.463) and Pielou evenness index (0.716) reached their maxima in spring. Among the rivers, the Heihe River exhibited the highest species richness index of Margalef (2.767 ± 1.455) and Shannon-Wiener diversity index (1.549 ± 0.432), whereas the Shule River recorded the highest Simpson dominance index (0.755 ± 0.060) and Pielou evenness index (0.807 ± 0.095), respectively. The NMDS analysis revealed significant differences in fish species composition between the upper and middle-to-lower reaches of rivers. Redundancy analysis indicated that total phosphorus was the primary environmental factor influencing fish community structure.

Conclusion:Compared with survey data from the 1980s, the distribution areas of Gymnocypris chilienensis and Triplophysa yarkandensis have been reduced, while the distribution areas of other Triplophysa species have remained relatively stable. Key factors affecting fish diversity and distribution in the region include water resource scarcity, invasive species, and water conservancy projects.

Background & Aim: Domestic animals and their wild relatives are important biological resources crucial to the creation of new breeds, germplasm innovation and wildlife protection. China has abundant and unique domestic breeds and is one of the distributions of many wild relatives and the origin centers of animal domestication. The confusion in the usage of Chinese and Latin names for domestic animals and their wild relatives hinders the accurate identification of biological resources, impairs effective scientific research communication and science popularization, and contributes to the loss of vital biological resources.

Methods: We search online resources and official documents such as the List of State Key Protected Wild Animals (2021), threatened species listed on China’s Red List (2021), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (2023) among others. This information is used to investigate the history and origin of domesticating animals and the sources and use of names for domestic animals and their wild relatives in Chinese, English, and Latin languages.

Conclusion & Suggestions: We find four key principles: (1) The Latin names of domestic animals and wild relatives must consider their origin and domestication history. (2) The Chinese names of domestic animals and wild relatives should conform to the rules of taxonomy, using the names of official documents or related monographs is recommended. (3) The Latin name of offspring produced by the hybridization of species should be expressed by the Latin scientific name of the parent, and the order of the Latin name should be distinguished from the orthogonal or inverse cross. (4) International conventions, national laws and regulations, scientific reports, and other official documents shall be used first according to context.