Backgrounds and Aims: From the global perspective, there are common difficulties in achieving the implementation goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity and other international conventions, but China’s implementation model is easy to overcome these difficulties: the central authorities judged “major missions” at the decision-making level, concentrated its strength, and transmits its strength to the execution level through the leading means of planning, assessment, and funds, transforming the objectives of international conventions into national tasks with mechanisms to guarantee their implementation, which has achieved initial results in transforming the international goals of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) into China’s carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals and the construction of China’s national parks.
Challenges: However, Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) has yet to achieve a similar transformation. The work of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP) is still similar to the work of departments, rather than the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals that has become a rigid task for most departments and all levels of government.
Recommendations: Relying on the tasks of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and related working mechanisms, it is possible to transform most of the action targets in the KMGBF and NBSAP into rigid tasks of local party committees and governments at all levels and drive the participation of all sectors of society. In the above, refining and optimizing the work of “Comprehensive efforts will be made to develop the national park-based system of protected areas” is the most convenient to complete the related goals of in situ protection, fair benefit sharing and mainstreaming, so as to reflect the advantages of China’s implementation model in the completion of the KMGBF targets.

Background: The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) is the primary tool for the Parties to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity and serves as the master plan for national biodiversity conservation. Local governments play a crucial role as the managers of regional biodiversity conservation. The coordinated actions between central and local governments, according to their respective powers will unite the overall implementation of NBSAP and have a significant impact on the action effectiveness.
Results: The China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023-2030) has updated the strategy, priority areas, and actions to address the challenges to biodiversity conservation in the new era. The responsibilities of local governments for biodiversity conservation have been continuously clarified through the development of relevant regulations and policies. Although the central and local governments have coordinated to promote NBSAP implementation and achieved remarkable results through multiple means such as strengthening legal safeguards, improving policies and planning, and integrating biodiversity into demonstration, evaluations, and assessments, challenges still remain. These challenges include: (1) operational methods and pathways for biodiversity conservation, (2) the return on conservation investment, and (3) the scale of social participation.
Recommendations: In view of the challenges to biodiversity conservation and NBSAP implementation, it is recommended to provide operational methods through technical guidance and pilot demonstrations to bridge the gap from concept to practice. Additionally, promoting the market value realization of biodiversity and enhancing political returns can stimulate intrinsic motivation and improve the sustainability of conservation efforts. Lastly, enriching biodiversity-related policy instruments are crucial to mobilize extensive participation from the whole of society.

Background & Aims: Developing a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) is an important implementation mechanism under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. To maintain consistency with the global targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) and provide an updated guidance to domestic conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, China officially released the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023‒2030) (China’s updated NBSAP) in January 2024, which is one of the first parties to submit an update in accordance with the KMGBF. We compared the action-oriented targets of China’s updated NBSAP and the KMGBF to understand their synergies and differences. Based on the core elements of global targets, the degree of synergy between the two is divided into four categories, according to the coverage of core elements.
Findings: This paper reveals that the China’s updated NBSAP aligns strategically with the KMGBF, however China has adapted its approach by proposing phased objectives and guiding principles tailored to its national context. At the action level, both documents demonstrate high overall synergy in their targets, though differences emerge in quantitative benchmarks, priority-setting, action pathways, and core elements. The alignment between the China’s updated NBSAP and the KMGBF can enhance China’s biodiversity governance system and foster international convergence in biodiversity practices. While their disparities highlight gaps in China’s current governance framework, they also offer globally relevant insights. Notably, the “ecological product value realization” initiative exemplifies China’s innovative approach to reconciling conservation and development. By establishing a system to quantify and trade the diverse services and products derived from biodiversity, this mechanism incentivizes sustainable natural resource use by markets and businesses, channels funding toward conservation, and advances biodiversity mainstreaming in economic systems—presenting a unique solution. Building on this analysis, the paper proposes recommendations to optimize the implementation of China’s updated NBSAP, aiming to support both domestic execution and the global review process of the KMGBF’s progress.

Backgrounds: To achieve the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) within the Chinese context, grass-roots local government are key players, as they implement or oversee most actionable measures. China’s system excels at mobilizing collective efforts for national tasks like biodiversity management and climate change response.
Challenges: Nevertheless, in the execution of top-down directives, grass-roots local government are inclined to prioritize and exhaustively implement initiatives that are tied to performance evaluation metrics. The comparative advantages inherent in China’s governance structure have exhibited notable efficacy in the observance of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); however, such strengths remain underdeveloped in the realm of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The reason is that the implementation task is not reflected in the planning and assessment of local governments and the financial support is weak.
Recommendations: It is suggested to leverage the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China to mainstream the work of the KMGBF and the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023‒2030), thereby enabling international compliance efforts to potentially receive rigid support under the Chinese system. Establish and improve coordination mechanisms among government agencies at all levels, and construct policy systems for various departments and industries. Strengthen inter-departmental collaboration, enhance linkage between provinces, cities, and counties, break down barriers of departmental interests, completely reverse the notion that biodiversity work is solely the responsibility of ecological and environmental departments, refine the joint mechanism for biodiversity conservation and governance, and classify and grade to consolidate responsibilities. The central ecological and environmental protection inspectors form the means for ecological and environmental departments to dispatch local governments and relevant departments at the grass-roots local level.

Background & Aims: The China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023‒2030) (hereinafter referred to as the Action Plan) is a critical programmatic document developed by China in response to the new demands of biodiversity conservation in the contemporary era. It outlines the strategic direction and objectives for future biodiversity conservation efforts. As grass-roots implementer of the Action Plan, local governments play a pivotal role, and their execution directly influence the overall effectiveness of the Action Plan.
Results: We examine the difficulties faced by local governments during the implementation of the Action Pan. Firstly, the integration of biodiversity into broader policy frameworks remains inadequate, inter-departmental coordination mechanisms require further development, existing policies and regulations need refinement for better implementation, public and corporate awareness is insufficient, and social engagement remains limited. Secondly, funding sources are overly concentrated, and a diversified financing mechanism has yet to mature. Thirdly, the construction and optimization of the biodiversity monitoring network warrant further attention.
Recommendations: To ensure the successful implementation of the Action Plan at the local level, it is recommended to strengthen policy coordination refine evaluation mechanisms for local governments, optimize the allocation while exploring diversified financing channels, enhance technical and data capabilities, reinforce network monitoring and the integration of multi-source data, raise public and corporate awareness through targeted publicity and educational initiatives, and promote greater social participation.

Aims: There are 23 targets of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) from the period up to 2030. China is among the mega biodiversity countries with largest human population and faces a lot of challenges on biodiversity conservation. It is very important to understand current biodiversity conservation status and gaps in order to achieve 2030 mission and 2050 vision. In addition, although forestry and grassland administrations in China (FGAC) are considered as the main body of China biodiversity conservation, especially on in situ conservation, ex situ conservation and trade control, there is no detail analysis about the lawful basis and implementation mechanisms of FGAC for the 23 targets. At the same time, there are many national strategic actions or plans on biodiversity conservation, it is very urgent to propose comments and suggestions on these actions or plans in order to make best usage of limited conservation resources. Here we aim to illustrate current biodiversity conservation status and gaps, lawful basis of FGAC’s duties, and propose our suggestions on Chinese biodiversity conservation on 2030 targets.
Methods: We analyzed the lawful basis and implementation mechanisms of FGAC for the 23 targets of KMGBF, from the aspects of ecosystem conservation, species conservation, genetic resources conservation and biosafety, support measures, and fairness requirements. We analyzed the typical route of implementing framework conventions through synergy among governmental sectors, and discussed four stages, i.e. to determine the whole goals, to identify detail targets, to implement relevant actions or plans, enforcement/supervision/evaluation. We also summarized the biodiversity conservation achievements and shortcomings of FGAC, and provided suggestions for future work.
Results: Our analyses indicated that Chinese government attached high importance on biodiversity conservation. The mandate duties of FGAC well consist with 2030 mission. Many national strategic actions or plans on biodiversity were compiled and implemented by FGAC. Many special conservation measures of FGAC, such as ecological conservation compensation and Forestry-Leader Mechanism, had been established and received huge amount support. The conservation networks have been well established and improving across China. The system of in situ conservation, such as national parks, nature reserves, key habitats of wildlife, has been established and improving across all kinds ecosystem and received strong support from governments, local communities and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The system of ex situ conservation, such as national botanical gardens, endangered species conservation and research centers, had been well designed and received strong support from national/provincial/municipal governments and scientists. Bilateral and multilateral international co-operations had launched many achievements and contributed to global biodiversity conservation. Public awareness is improved through wide spread communication. Many endangered species have been well protected and the quality of ecosystems is improved onwards. Inner problems related to biodiversity conservation are analyzed. Suggestions are provided regarding in situ conservation, ex situ conservation, enforcement/supervision/ evaluation, and mainstreaming of biodiversity.
Conclusion: Biodiversity conservation has achieved great outcome and is becoming important part of Chinese government. However, there is high pressure for FGAC to implement relevant conservation actions or plans. We propose to improve biodiversity conservation networks, establish biodiversity monitoring system, enhance enforcement, supervision and evaluation, and mainstream biodiversity concept into Chinese culture.

Backgrounds: Biodiversity is critical to support sustainable development and ecosystem stability. The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity has repeatedly proposed goals and pathways for the conservation and sustainable use of global biodiversity. Despite numerous global actions, the trend of biodiversity loss has not been effectively curbed or reversed. With the approaching deadline of the “3030” global target under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, it is essential to mainstream biodiversity within the Chinese institutional contexts. In particular, the transformation of key economic sectors, such as the agricultural sector, toward sustainability and their role in fulfilling commitments are crucial for advancing the vision of “harmonious coexistence of humans and nature” by 2050.
Results: Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (IAHS), as institutionalised protections of traditional agricultural systems, possess unique advantages in biodiversity conservation, ecological product development, and regional development coordination. These systems align closely with the objectives outlined in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, which include reducing threats to biodiversity, meeting human needs through sustainable use and benefit-sharing, and promoting mainstreaming tools and solutions. As such, IAHS have the potential to drive a mainstreaming compliance model with Chinese characteristics.
Perspectives: This study, based on the concepts of systematic conservation and adaptive management of IAHS, proposes specific tasks for mainstreaming biodiversity into agricultural sectors. These tasks include: (1) conducting biodiversity surveys, identifying key biodiversity areas, and recognising traditional agricultural ecological landscapes to promote in-situ biodiversity conservation; (2) promoting nature-friendly ecological agricultural models, exploring and utilising local traditional ecological knowledge, and integrating agricultural production standards with nature conservation goals to strengthen the mutualistic relationship between nature and humans; and (3) developing policy frameworks and evaluation procedures, establishing long-term dynamic monitoring networks, creating financial incentive mechanisms, and setting up special funds to further enhance institutional support for IAHS, thereby constructing implementation tools and solutions. In response to these specific tasks, the study proposes concrete compliance indicators for the agricultural sector, calling for enhanced collaboration between environmental and agricultural sectors.

Background & Aims: Land/ocean use change represents the foremost direct driver of global biodiversity loss. Target 1 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework advocates for zero loss of critical ecological regions through comprehensive spatial planning encompassing all areas. The proposal of “establishing and improving a unified and coordinated system for land and space use control and planning permission covering all regions and all types” put forward at the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China provides the best opportunity for implementing Target 1.
Challenges: As national parks constitute territorial spaces for biological conservation, their institutional reforms must be thoroughly connected with the territorial space planning and utilization regulation frameworks to efficaciously underpin the conservation of such ecological spaces. Nonetheless, current top-level designs for national park reforms lack explicit integration with these two systems, leading to practical contradictions.
Recommendations: It is suggested to fully connect the national park planning system with the five-tiered, three-category territorial space planning hierarchy to serve as the basis for spatial regulation within national parks; to advance the phased implementation of unified utilization control rights, either indirectly or directly exercised by national park management authorities, in accordance with the complexity of reforms; and to develop a differentiated and nuanced utilization control system grounded in spatial zoning.

Aims: Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) are becoming an essential complement to the traditional system of protected areas, playing a critical role in global biodiversity conservation. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the development trajectory and current research on OECMs, focusing particularly on their advancements and unique characteristics in China. It further explores the future prospects of OECMs in China under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
Progress: In recent years, the continuous policy advancements regarding OECMs worldwide underscore the international community’s recognition of their significant role as a supplementary tool in global biodiversity conservation strategies. From conceptualization to practical implementation, OECMs have undergone a process of deepening and refinement, emerging as a key mechanism for addressing biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. Globally, systematic studies have been conducted on the criteria, procedures, and methodologies for identifying OECMs, as well as on their governance and long-term effectiveness.
Perspectives: Despite the growing international recognition of OECMs, their effective implementation and monitoring continue to face significant challenges that require urgent attention. This study explores future development pathways for OECMs within the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, with a particular focus on accelerating their mainstreaming, enhancing biodiversity conservation effectiveness through robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, establishing clear de-designation procedures, fostering cross-sectoral collaboration and multi-stakeholder governance, and advancing research and formal recognition of marine OECMs. These efforts aim to contribute to the refinement of biodiversity conservation strategies in China and globally, providing a scientific basis for the effective integration of OECMs into broader conservation frameworks.

Background & Aims: The 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) proposed the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and “3030 target” with the most attention. Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) are widely recognized as a cost-effective new type of conservation management tool that can achieve the 3030 targets by significantly increasing the protected areas on land and in the ocean while considering social and economic factors. The study takes the compliance work under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework as the background in China, seizes the relevant requirements of the Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China as an opportunity, leverages the characteristic advantages of OECMs and China’s institutional advantages, then analyzes the current status of China’s OECMs actions to identify key issues in advancing OECMs implementation (including significant opportunities and practical challenges), finally proposes strategic recommendations for advancing the work.
Results: Key opportunities for OECMs implementation in China lie in closely aligning with the integrated optimization goals of the “ecological-living-production spaces”, proactively identifying OECMs types that not only achieve conservation outcomes under government leadership but also attract market participation. By leveraging their advantage of balancing production, living, and ecological needs, which makes them more appealing under market economy conditions, these OECMs can effectively address current shortcomings such as lack of funding and insufficient specialized planning support. The practical challenges in the implementation of OECMs in China include unclear identification authorities and procedures, unaligned identification criteria and policy frameworks, insufficient financial and technical incentives for social participation, and the lack of research and promotion of the Chinese model. Proposed strategies include clarifying the identification authorities and procedures for OECMs at the national level, developing adaptive criteria and OECMs management guidelines, encouraging diversified social participation and financing mechanisms for OECMs, and initiating cost-benefit research on OECMs as a model with Chinese characteristics.
Conclusion & Recommendation: In the logical analysis of key issues and corresponding advancement strategies for OECMs implementation in China, the conclusions of this study are illustrated through typical cases, reflecting a novel perspective that integrates scientific research, policy analysis, and practical experience. This study anticipates leveraging the distinctive features of China’s institutional framework—clear objectives, effective measures, robust safeguards, and rigorous oversight—to strategically harness OECMs, thereby supporting the achievement of China’s implementation goals and fostering a new model for fulfilling its commitments.

Background: The Earth is approaching a critical tipping point of irreversible biodiversity loss. As the latest global action plan for biodiversity conservation, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) sets out 4 long-term goals and 23 action targets. Tracking and assessing progress toward the KMGBF has become a global concern. However, challenges such as unclear progress, untimely monitoring, and incomplete evaluations remain prominent, highlighting the urgent need to address technical barriers like a large number of evaluation indicators, inconsistent assessment standards, and weak data foundations.
Aims: This study aims to explore rapid assessment methods for evaluating the implementation progress of the KMGBF using remote sensing monitoring. By integrating remote sensing-based and ground-based data, as well as combining quantitative and qualitative evaluations, this approach seeks to meet the multi-scale needs of quickly tracking the progress of the KMGBF.
Problems & Prospects: This paper first points out that the existing monitoring frameworks exhibit significant uncertainties in effectively assessing the progress of the KMGBF. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a more operationally robust set of indicators, indicator calculation methods, and high-quality datasets with higher spatial resolution and more frequent updates to ensure the timely and effective tracking and assessment of the KMGBF. Second, this paper provides an in-depth analysis of the application of remote sensing technology in biodiversity monitoring and evaluates its feasibility in assessing the progress of the KMGBF. Based on this analysis, a spatial intelligence service framework integrating data, knowledge, and computation is proposed to support ecosystem mapping, biodiversity mapping, and the development of remote sensing-based essential biodiversity variables (RS-EBVs). Finally, this paper advocates for a quantitative assessment approach based on RS-EBVs, complemented by a qualitative assessment derived from National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) and National Reports (NRs). Additionally, it suggests leveraging artificial intelligence to develop an intelligent real-time monitoring system for the KMGBF, enabling rapid multi-scale progress assessments. These technological approaches aim to provide practical and feasible support for tracking the progress of the KMGBF and offer scientific evidence for countries to formulate and implement biodiversity conservation policies.

Aims: The rapid expansion of linear infrastructure poses a significant threat to biodiversity. Developing large-scale optimization pathways for wildlife passages is crucial for regional biodiversity conservation.
Method: We employ the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model, with emphasis on representative wildlife species in Xinjiang, to predict potential habitats and assess the importance of each. The minimal cumulative resistance (MCR) model computes the least-cost paths influenced by linear infrastructure. We then accurately pinpoint the necessary locations and numbers of passages by integrating current and planned roads and fences to improve habitat connectivity, ultimately proposing an optimized spatial layout for wildlife passages.
Results: Our findings reveal notable ecological differences in the habitat distributions of various representative species. Carnivores are predominantly found in alpine and subalpine regions, while large herbivores show a preference for arid desert areas. High-resistance zones are mainly located where railways and highways intersect protected areas. Our analysis identified 2,494.98 km of passage regions and 4,314 individual passages. Higher technical grades of road are associated with longer passage regions and a greater number of passages. The total length of passages in important regions surpasses that of key regions, but passage density is significantly higher in key regions.
Conclusion: Given these findings we suggest implementing differentiated passage construction based on the technical grade of linear infrastructure. Further, enhancing passage layout optimization outside protected areas to effectively preserve regional ecological connectivity is necessary to maintain biodiversity.

Aims: Spatial ecological niche differentiation is a crucial mechanism for biodiversity maintenance. The ungulates in the Chongzhou Area of Giant Panda National Park are numerous and widely distributed, but their spatial ecological niche differentiation remains unclear. The objective of our study is to analyze the ungulates spatial distribution and their spatial coexistence.
Methods: A survey on ungulates was conducted using 56 camera traps near Chongzhou, China from October 2021 to March 2022. To analyze species spatial distributions, we used single-species single season model to calculate the occupancy rates of six main local ungulate species including Sus scrofa, Elaphodus cephalophus, Rusa unicolor, Budorcas taxicolor, Naemorhedus griseus, and Muntiacus reevesi. Further, two-species single season model was used to calculate the species interaction factors (SIF) between these species to explore their spatial coexistence.
Results: We found that (1) Elaphodus cephalophus had the highest spatial occupancy rate (0.61) followed by Sus scrofa (0.55), and Rusa unicolor, Budorcas taxicolor, Naemorhedus griseus with 0.44, 0.42, and 0.11, respectively, while Muntiacus reevesi had the lowest occupancy rate (0.05); (2) The occupancy rate of ungulates was affected by environmental variables, with elevation being the highest-ranking factor; (3) There was no significant avoidance between Rusa unicolor and other ungulates in terms of spatial co-existence except Sus scrofa, nor between Elaphodus cephalophus and Sus scrofa, Budorcas taxicolor, whereas the other species were more avoidant in their spatial distributions to each other.
Conclusions: Our results suggest environmental factors influence the spatial ecological position of ungulates, while spatial distribution patterns among species significantly affect the coexistence mechanism and interspecific competition among animals distributed in the same area. We provide a scientific basis for the conservation and management of ungulates in the Chongzhou Area of Giant Panda National Park. Further, our research highlights the importance of considering spatial ecological niche differentiation in species diversity conservation.

Aims: This work investigates how different soil concentrations of cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) affect bacterial community structure and bacterial antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Furthermore, we explored key environmental factors that influence ARGs expression, to identify effective approaches to mitigate the spread of antibiotic resistance within environment.
Methods: We established a soil microcosm experiment using soil containing different concentrations of Cu and Cd. The relative expression of ARGs in the soil bacteria was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) experiments. We performed genomic sequencing/16S rRNA sequencing using the Illumina MiSeq system to assess the bacterial diversity of soil samples.
Results: High concentrations of Cd and Cu contamination significantly increased the relative abundance of the ARGs, such as sul1, intl1, and blaVIM. The ARGs tetX and tetG were most sensitive to Cd, as their abundance significantly increased even at low concentrations of Cd. In addition, Cu and Cd clearly altered soil bacterial community structure. Overall, the change in bacterial diversity was more pronounced in response to Cu than to Cd. Correlation analysis and network analysis showed that ARGs detected in this study, such as sul1, tetX, tetM02, and blaVIM, were widely distributed across multiple bacterial phyla. Changes in ARG profiles were closely associated with variations in bacterial communities (e.g. Streptomyces, Bradyrhizobium, genus BIrii41 (Polyangiales), and Haliangium), which indicate that these genera are the potential hosts of these resistance genes.
Conclusion: Our work provides direct evidence that heavy metals like Cu and Cd may co-select for ARGs in soil bacterial communities, which poses a potential health risk to humans.

Background & Aims: With the continuous acceleration of urbanization, large areas of forest and farmland are being occupied by urban buildings, roads and other infrastructures. These land use changes caused by urbanization may lead to soil biodiversity loss. However, research on soil biodiversity is still insufficient. As an important component of soil biodiversity, soil eukaryotes play a key role in maintaining soil health. The purpose of this study is to explore the diversity characteristics of eukaryotes in urban soil and their environmental drivers.
Method: We selected two types of non-urban land (forest and farmland) and five types of urban green spaces (park, greenbelt, industrial area, residential area, and hospital) in Ningbo City. The diversity of soil eukaryotes (including fungi, Protozoa, Nematoda, Arthropoda and Annelida) was analyzed in response to urbanization and land use types.
Results: The richness of eukaryotes in urban greenspaces was significantly lower than that in farmland, and the richness of Arthropoda in urban greenspaces soil was significantly lower than that in forest land, and the decline in the richness of Protozoa in the soil of urban greenbelt is most pronounced. The β diversity of soil eukaryotes was significantly different between forest, farmland, and urban greenspaces. There was no significant difference in β diversity of soil eukaryotes among the five urban greenspaces, except for the Annelida. The differences among all soil eukaryotic groups at different land use types were mainly driven by β turnover components. Soil pH and total phosphorus content may be the main driving factors affecting the diversity of soil eukaryotic community. Among them, the richness of fungi and Annelida were negatively correlated with soil pH, texture and water content also decreased the Protozoa richness, while the increase of total phosphorus content was positively correlated with the Protozoa richness.
Perspectives: In general, urban greenspaces will lead to the homogenization of eukaryotic groups, and enhance the spatial heterogeneity of soil physical and chemical properties through soil improvement and other means, thus creating possibilities for the improvement of urban soil eukaryotic biodiversity.

Aims: The combined impacts of climate change and human activities are likely to increase the land areas suitable for poisonous weeds, leading to rapid biodiversity loss and increasingly severe grassland degradation in the semi-arid region of Xinjiang. Enhanced understanding of the relationship between soil biomes and ecosystem multifunctionality can provide theoretical support for efforts to control the spread of poisonous weeds in Xinjiang.
Methods: This study used a field experiment to explore the effects of nitrogen, water addition and mowing on soil biodiversity patterns, co-occurrence networks, and the relationship between diversity indices and ecosystem multifunctionality. This study adopted a randomized block trial design and set up eight treatments, which are no nitrogen, no watering, no mowing (CK), nitrogen addition (N treatment), watering (W treatment), mowing (M treatment), nitrogen × watering (NW treatment), nitrogen × mowing (NM treatment), watering × mowing (WM treatment), nitrogen × watering × mowing (NWM treatment).
Results: (1) The Shannon-Wiener diversity index of soil bacteria differed significantly between the control, water addition, and nitrogen-mowing treatments. There were no significant differences between the diversity of soil fungi, nematodes, and arthropods in each treatment. (2) N, W, M, NW, and NM treatments all resulted in reduced complexity and connectivity of soil biological co-occurrence networks. WM and NWM treatments increased the complexity and connectivity of soil biological co-occurrence networks. (3) In the control, there was a significant and positive correlation between multidiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality (P < 0.01). In the NM treatment, there was a significant and negative correlation between multidiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality (P < 0.05). There was no correlation between multidiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality in the other treatments. Finally, soil bacterial diversity was most susceptible to the change of external environment.
Conclusion: This study demonstrated that short-term nitrogen addition, watering, and mowing can weaken the relationship between soil biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality. These findings provide a theoretical basis for closer study of the mechanisms that affect the relationship between soil biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality through environmental changes caused by global climate change.

Aims: Soil nematodes are crucial soil organisms that are highly sensitive to environmental changes. Their diverse groups occupy multiple trophic levels within the soil food web, and their metabolic rates and energy fluxes can thus serve as powerful metrics for assessing ecosystem functioning. Global climate change has resulted in significant shifts in the nitrogen deposition and precipitation pattern in northern temperate grasslands, but it remains largely unknown how these shifts and their interactions might affect soil nematode metabolic rate and energy flow. The study aims to investigate the responses of nematode metabolic rates and energy flows to the interaction between nitrogen addition and precipitation intensity change.
Methods: We conducted an eight-year controlled experiment with precipitation and nitrogen addition in the Duolun region of Inner Mongolia. The experiment assessed five levels of precipitation intensity while maintaining a constant total and varying frequency. The experiment’s total nitrogen addition included 10 g∙m^-2∙yr^-1.
Results: The results showed that the interaction between nitrogen addition and precipitation pattern change had significant negative impacts on nematode metabolic rate and energy flux. Under changing precipitation patterns, shifting towards higher intensity and lower frequency events, nematode metabolic rates and energy fluxes initially increased with increasing precipitation intensity, peaking at high intensity before declining. However, this trend was weakened by the effects of interactions between nitrogen addition and precipitation pattern change. Under the interaction effects of nitrogen addition and precipitation pattern change, nematode metabolic rate and energy flow were primarily driven by bottom-up effects of food resources within the nematode food web.
Conclusions: The experiment showed that soil nematode metabolic rates and energy flows are negatively impacted by the interaction between nitrogen addition and precipitation pattern change. This research provides insights into the impacts of multi-factor interactions on underground biological communities in the context of global climate change.

Aims: Nature reserves are essential venues for the conservation of wild flora and fauna, and the coverage of species protection by nature reserves has always been a focal point.
Methods: This study utilized GBIF data, literature sources, and scientific research data from nature reserves, drawing on the List of National Key Protected Wild Animals (2021 Edition) and the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants (2021 Edition), to analyze the coverage and distribution of national key protected wild species within nature reserves in China.
Results: The results indicate that 78.12% of the national key protected wild species are conserved within nature reserves. Specifically, the coverage for key protected wild animals is found to reach 85.58%, while for key protected wild plants, it is 71.95%. The spatial density distribution of wild species within nature reserves is uneven, displaying a decreasing trend from southwest to northeast. At the family level, the highest protection coverage is observed for Orchidaceae, followed by Fabaceae, Lycopodiaceae, and Pinaceae. In terms of provincial distribution, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guangdong have the highest number of national key protected wild species.
Conclusion: Overall, the majority of national key protected wild species are effectively conserved within nature reserves, and nature reserves play an important role in protecting biodiversity in China and fulfilling the commitments under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.