Background & Aims: Global biodiversity hotspot cities are where urban development and biodiversity conservation come into conflict, playing a critical role in maintaining biodiversity balance both within and beyond their regions. However, there has been no dedicated study focusing on Chinese cities within global biodiversity hotspots. This research is based on Target 12 of the COP15 and Priority Action 18 of the China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030). This research examines the biodiversity conservation policies of 16 Chinese cities with populations exceeding one million (hereafter referred to as "hotspot cities") within global biodiversity hotspot regions. The analysis focuses on five key aspects: (1) biodiversity conservation planning and sustainable utilization plans, (2) urban biodiversity survey, monitoring, and assessment, (3) habitat restoration and ecological corridor construction, (4) the connection between urban residents and nature as well as their health and well-being, and (5) urban ecosystem functions and services. By comparing these conservation policies with international case cities, the study identifies existing challenges and proposes optimization directions to support biodiversity-friendly urban development while balancing ecological protection and high-quality urban growth. 

Review Results: The findings reveal that both Chinese and international hotspot cities face common challenges, including a lack of awareness of their unique ecological positioning, insufficient biodiversity-inclusive long-term urban planning, and a general scarcity of biodiversity monitoring data. Additionally, Chinese cities exhibit specific issues such as limited coverage and single-method approaches in urban biodiversity monitoring, insufficient attention to biodiversity-related public experiences and supporting infrastructure, and inadequate focus on the provision of urban ecosystem services. 

Optimization trends: Future enhancements to urban biodiversity conservation policies in these hotspot cities should prioritize the followings: (1) Prioritizing the development of spatial planning for biodiversity conservation; (2) Exploring the integrated application of multi-source data monitoring technologies; (3) Standardizing multi-dimensional approaches to urban biodiversity experiences; (4) Promoting synergistic enhancement of urban biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services.

“Leaving space for wildness” as a critical initiative for maintaining biodiversity within national territorial space, holds significant importance in supporting the construction of ecologically sustainable and high-quality metropolitan regions. However, current metropolitan planning systems have not sufficiently addressed this issue, and it is particularly crucial to emphasize this aspect in the advancement of the ecological civilization system. This study adopts a historical perspective to examine the development of various types of natural ecological spaces in Chinese metropolitan areas over the past 30 years, focusing on both the overall metropolitan region and the urban core. It analyzes the increasingly prominent coexistence pattern between natural protected areas and built-up areas across metropolitan regions, as well as the evolution in core urban areas from emphasizing the coordinated expansion of green spaces and built-up areas to the focused development of large suburban parks that incorporate ecological conservation zones. These findings collectively reveal the gradually strengthening trend of natural wilderness preservation in contemporary metropolitan areas. Furthermore, the study explores and envisions metropolitan planning under the framework of the ecological civilization system, addressing aspects such as conceptual adjustments, system development, and mechanism optimization. It advocates for the exploration of systematic space for wildness within metropolitan planning frameworks, promoting the development of relevant governance tools to support the future emergence of a new metropolitan form characterized by “urban-wilderness coexistence.”

Background&Aim: Biodiversity is a valuable natural and public resource. To this point, the “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework” (“Kunmeng Framework”) has set 2030 global targets and a 2050 vision to guide the protection of global biodiversity. In order to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), it is important to study the political dynamics of urban biodiversity. This will enable the promotion of sustainable urban development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to summarize topics related to urban biodiversity in previous Conference of the Parties (COP) decisions, including the health and well-being of urban biodiversity, how urbanization impacts biodiversity, and the participation of cities and local governments. Additionally, we reviewed how the targets related to urban biodiversity were developed, following them from when they were initially discussed to when the Kunmeng Framework was released. 

Results: China’s urban biodiversity conservation policies were primarily implemented in the fields of landscaping, spatial planning, climate change, and demonstration construction. Additionally, the newly published China’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030) put forward new requirements for urban biodiversity conservation. Based on our analysis, we advised urban biodiversity conservation to: (1) Promote the function of ecosystem services based on conservation work; (2) Establish a specialized evaluation system for urban biodiversity conservation; (3) Become a part of the mainstream by forming an atmosphere of biodiversity conservation which is led by the government, echoed by enterprises, and participated in by all citizens. 

Conclusions: To enable China to achieve these goals, scientific ideas should be integrated into urban planning, and the government should lead enterprises and citizens in forming an atmosphere of biodiversity conservation. The conservation of urban biodiversity should align with the relevant resolutions of the Kunmeng Framework and the CBD, in addition to conforming with the policy update and practical work of China.

Aims: Global biodiversity is under serious threat due to the intensification of climate change and human activities in the ecosystems. As a result, governments and the public are increasingly focused on implementing measures to mitigate biodiversity loss. In recent years, insect hotels have emerged as an innovative approach to biodiversity conservation in urban park management, attracting significant attention and being gradually adopted. The primary purpose of insect hotels is to provide breeding, nesting, and overwintering sites for insects—particularly solitary bees—in urban environments. By doing so, insect hotels contribute to maintaining species diversity and population stability. However, a comprehensive understanding regarding of the effectiveness and challenges of insect hotels in conserving urban insect diversity is still lacking. 

Progresses: To address this, we review the global research status of insect hotels, including aspects such as the number of studies, geographical distribution, targeted species, and the materials and specifications of nesting tubes. 

Prospects: Furthermore, we summarize the positive impacts (pollination, pest control, and popular science education) and limitations (low occupancy rate, non protected species, increased harm from natural enemies and pathogens) of insect hotels in promoting solitary bees diversity in urban environments and propose specific improvement strategies. This study aims to provide a scientific foundation and practical guidance for sustainable development of urban biodiversity.

Aims: Urban green spaces are crucial for biodiversity conservation, and university campuses, as microcosms of urban built environments, are crucial for enhancing the quality of micro green spaces. However, existing studies on campus biodiversity often lack continuous spatial and temporal information, and fail to clarify the relationships between species and the internal structure of green spaces. This gap may hinder the optimization of small green spaces, ultimately limiting the achievement of targets set forth in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) and the China’s National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) (2023–2030). 

Methods: This study focused on the bird species of Tsinghua University campus, employing generalized linear models and redundancy analysis to investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of bird distribution and analyze the associations between bird community composition and green space characteristics. 

Results: The study revealed that birds in university campus green spaces exhibited concentrated distributions with seasonal variations. Bird community composition was associated with the food plants richness, shrub evenness, ground coverage, artificial grass coverage, and tree coverage. Among these factors, food plants richness promoted bird abundance, species richness, and diversity, while shrub evenness promoted bird richness and diversity. Tree and artificial grass coverage promoted bird abundance only when both are simultaneously below 37.5% and 39.8%, respectively. Ground coverage negatively impacted bird richness and diversity. Furthermore, different bird residency types displayed distinct habitat preferences: Migratory birds in autumn were solely associated with vegetation structure, whereas resident and wintering birds were jointly influenced by both the physical characteristics and vegetation structure of green spaces. 

Conclusion: This study suggests that, when designing urban micro green spaces in alignment with natural principles, tree and artificial grass coverage should be kept below 40% simultaneously, while enhancing the richness of food plants and shrub evenness. Additionally, increasing natural ground coverage and vertical vegetation is recommended. The study provides both quantitative and qualitative recommendations for creating near-natural urban micro green spaces, providing a scientific foundation for achieving the goals of KMGBF and NBSAP in improving urban blue and green spaces quality.

Background & Aims: “Nature-based Solutions (NbS)” offer multiple environmental, social and economic benefits. They play an important role in addressing climate change and achieving sustainable development. Enhancing urban ecosystems through strategies that “work with nature” is now widely practiced by cities globally and is crucial for achieving Goal 12 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. 

Methods: In this paper, we summarize the theoretical framework of NbS and use the habitat garden initiative in Changning District, Shanghai as a case study. We systematically analyzed the design and operational modes, and network construction methods of urban microhabitats; and explored the achievements and limitations of habitat gardens, and suggested future research and practical directions for urban microhabitats in high-density urban areas, guided by national urban biodiversity conservation strategies. 

Results: The habitat garden initiative in Changning District, Shanghai has explored three key innovations: (1) Strengthening the networking scale effect among scattered microhabitats in dense urban areas; (2) Establishing a model of community governance with active resident participation; and (3) Forming collaborative partnerships that benefits all stakeholders. However, challenges remain, such as inconsistent biodiversity monitoring, an overemphasis on residential green spaces, and inadequate funding plans. As the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework progresses, restoringurban habitats and ecological networks will become increasingly crucial. 

Suggestion & Perspectives: Guided by the NbS framework and principles, cities should establish a cross-departmental and inclusive governance platforms to provide support urban microhabitats and ecological networks. To increase the appeal of NbS and urban biodiversity conservation, three measures should be implemented: improving scientific monitoring systems, expanding design patterns across various climate zones, and developing diverse funding mechanisms.

Aims: Reconstruction of near-natural forest is an important approach to accelerate the recovery of urban vegetation and forest restoration. However, the spatial and temporal dynamics of species diversity, canopy structure and biomass during subtropical forest restoration remain unclear, especially in highly urbanized regions. Methods: Based on a long-term subtropical near-natural forest plant community that planted with native plant species in 2006 located in Minhang District of the megacity Shanghai, we did the resurvey of plant community in 2023, and compared with the compositional changes of plant community through five historical surveys of core plots from 2007 to 2023. Aboveground biomass and the relations among biomass, plant richness and canopy height across temporal and spatial scales were analyzed using general linear regression. Results: Along with near-natural forest succession, woody plant richness increased from 11 in 2007 to 18 in 2023, and stem density increased at early stages and then decreased. The aboveground biomass increased from 3.51 t/ha in 2007 to 208.83 t/ha in 2023. Evergreen tree species such as Camphora officinarum and Quercus myrsinifolia gradually became the dominant species. Aboveground biomass showed significant positive correlations with species richness (P < 0.01) and mean tree height (P < 0.001), and a significant negative correlation with stem density (P < 0.01). When comparing the compositional changes over space, at three scales of 5 m, 10 m and 20 m, the relations between biomass and stem density remains highly significantly positive (P < 0.001), but the relations with mean height shifted from nonsignificant at 5 m scale to significantly negative at 10 m (P < 0.05) and 20 m (P < 0.05) scales. Conclusion: During the 17-year subtropical forest restoration, the model of near-natural forest construction has clearly exhibited its efficacy in accelerating the succession process. These preliminary findings suggest that, during the construction and restoration of near-natural forests, we should pay attention to the dominant role of native tree species, and consider diverse species composition to effectively promote plant diversity and carbon storage.

Aims: The restoration of estuarine wetlands and the assessment of how restoration techniques impact habitat and bird diversity are essential for urban biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. This aligns with the objectives of the China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2030) and contributes to the implementation of the United Nations’ Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. By integrating machine learning with field surveys, this study evaluates the effects of various ecological restoration techniques on habitat conditions and bird diversity before and after restoration in the northern branch of the Yangtze River Estuary. 

Methods: By comparing and analyzing existing ecological and environmental problems in the study area, targeted restoration plans were developed, and integrated ecological restoration technologies were implemented. After project completion, we employed machine learning and field investigation methods to assess the restoration status of the Yangtze River Estuary habitat and bird diversity, comparing conditions before environmental degradation and after ecological restoration. 

Results: The findings indicate that Spartina alterniflora control, mudflat construction, tidal creek construction, and native salt marsh vegetation restoration are key methods for enhancing habitat heterogeneity and increasing avian diversity in estuarine wetlands. Specifically, Spartina alterniflora control and mudflat creation cover 12.97 hectares. Reed (Phragmites communis) vegetation restoration covered 13.5 hectares. Tidal creek measures extended 600 meters in length. Bird diversity in reed planting areas showed the greatest recovery, with species richness, abundance, and diversity indices in winter and spring exceeding those recorded in 2018 before ecological degradation. The highest record included 18 species and 178 individuals. In tidal creek construction areas, spring bird diversity recovered to pre-degradation levels, with a maximum of 13 species and 68 individuals recorded. Spartina alterniflora control areas showed a slower recovery of bird diversity, with a maximum of 13 species and 68 individuals recorded, still lagging behind pre-degradation levels. 

Conclusions: This study compares and evaluates the effects of various restoration techniques on estuarine wetland habitat and bird diversity enhancement. By conducting a comparative analysis of domestic and international restoration projects, this study offers valuable experiences and references for future restoration efforts in China. Furthermore, it provides scientific support for the systematic biodiversity assessment, urban biodiversity conservation, and sustainable use of degraded estuarine wetlands following integrated ecological restoration.

Background: Biodiversity loss has become one of the most serious environmental challenges in the world, and how to effectively conserve and enhance biodiversity in urban development has become an urgent issue. The KMGF under the CBD provides a solution for urban biodiversity conservation and enhancement. 

Purpose: To identify the requirements for urban biodiversity conservation set out in the Kunming Framework and the upgrading of urban biodiversity conservation in the process of building green and high-quality urban development in China. 

Results: China has formed a series of compliance mechanisms and a multisectoral collaboration model based on municipal housing and construction departments, showing a research trend of multidisciplinary crossover and extensive cooperation between the government and academia, and responding mainly to Action Goal 12. China adopts the path of synergistic urban green high-quality development and biodiversity conservation, and iterative advances green high-quality development modes. The eastern region is the centralized distribution area of the representative cities, and the distribution of the representative cities of the three modes of garden cities, forest cities, and park cities overlaps considerably; the biodiversity conservation and enhancement of China's urban biodiversity The main tasks reflect the characteristics of continuous optimization and high integration, with bottom-line indicators for control and constraints, and oriented indicators as implementation tools for construction guidance, mainly from the perspective of incorporating into the mainstream of urban development, significantly improving the area, quality and connectivity of urban green space, and improving human health and well-being, and ultimately from the perspective of landscape, ecosystems, species, and social participation in the diversity of the four levels. Twelve tasks focus on Goal 12 of the KMGF, and seven other tasks are synergized with it. 

Conclusion: In the context of green and high-quality development and the continued practice of the urban model, we should first consolidate the target system for urban biodiversity conservation and enhancement from the perspective of compliance, strengthen the mainstreaming of conservation, and establish a more comprehensive and effective coordinating mechanism; pay attention to the linkage between urban development and biodiversity conservation in its entirety and in its entire cycle, and improve the linkage between urban development and the well-being and health of city dwellers, so as to explore and form the Chinese path of “biology, livability, and well-being”, which is characterized by green and high-quality development and the conservation and enhancement of urban biodiversity. Explore the formation of a distinctive Chinese path of high-quality green development and urban biodiversity conservation to enhance the trinity of “biology, livability and well-being”.

Aims: The potential of cities to preserve biodiversity is gaining increased recognition. Urban green spaces (UGS), such as urban parks, play a crucial role in this effort. Research indicates that the ability of UGS to support biodiversity depends on several factors, with management activities being a key determinant. However, the current highly intense and inappropriate management of urban parks continues to hinder biodiversity enhancement. Improving management faces complex challenges in the urban context. In this comment paper, I focus on the management practices of Chinese urban parks and aim to answer: How can urban parks effectively enhance biodiversity by adjusting management practices? 

Methodology: A three-stage approach was employed in this study. First, the current regulatory framework for urban park management and biodiversity conservation was reviewed. Second, fieldwork was conducted to gather critical first-hand data through semi-structured interviews across ten urban parks and botanical gardens. Third, the data were analyzed to generate potential solutions, including a proposed management framework. 

Results: Urban parks serve multiple functions for city residents and are required to meet basic needs such as safety and recreation. Inherent tensions exist between human-oriented needs, such as sanitation and aesthetic landscaping, and biodiversity conservation. Despite these conflicts, it is still possible to improve certain management practices by minimizing trade-offs among competing objectives. 

Conclusion: By identifying areas for improvement and exploring root causes, such as market failures, I propose a policy recommendation for certifying biodiversity-friendly urban parks and present a management framework to guide practical changes in park operations.

Background & Aim: As a critical research area under the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), urban green spaces play a key role in maintaining the ecological stability of cities and improving the quality of life of residents. However, the compound pressures of habitat fragmentation, invasive alien species and environmental pollution brought about by large-scale global urban expansion have made the conservation of biodiversity in urban green spaces an urgent issue in global ecological governance. 

Progress: This paper focuses on the biodiversity of urban green space under high intensity artificial intervention, systematically analyzes its conceptual connotation and research scope, reviews the research progress in monitoring technology, functional synergy, landscape optimization and management strategy, and points out the shortcomings of the existing research and the future direction. It is found that urban green space has an irreplaceable role in enhancing the resilience of ecosystem services, promoting the migration and diffusion of species, and improving climate resilience, and its biodiversity conservation needs to take into account the restoration of ecological connectivity and multifunctional synergy optimization. However, the current research still faces bottlenecks such as fragmentation of monitoring technology system, disconnection of cross-scale planning and lagging governance mechanism. In the future, it is necessary to build an intelligent monitoring system and a comprehensive database, develop multi-objective synergistic models, promote biodiversity-oriented green space system planning, and innovate a multifaceted governance mechanism. 

Prospects: Through interdisciplinary integration and international cooperation, the conservation of urban green space biodiversity will be deeply embedded in the governance of land space, and the synergistic path of urbanization and biodiversity conservation will be explored, so as to provide a scalable ecological restoration plan for the realization of the global “ 3030” goal, and provide a scientific decision-making paradigm for the sustainable symbiosis of urban ecosystems in the context of the Anthropocene.

Aims & Background: South Dianchi National Wetland Park, which is an important wintering and stopover site for migratory birds in the East Asia–Australia migratory corridor, was used as a research target. The wetland ecosystem has been degraded and the biodiversity declined due to the human activities such as the encirclement of the lake and the construction of wave breakwaters. 

Methods: This study conducted case analysis, describing how to protect the wetland ecosystem and repair the damaged wetland habitats and woodland habitats in terms of determining protection and restoration objectives, dividing ecological zones, removing wave breakwaters, connecting the water system, modifying the forest. In addition, this paper systematically summarized the experience accumulated in design, implementation, construction, operation and management of the wetland park and reflects on the key tasks that need to be strengthened in the future. The Jaccard similarity index and G–F index were also used to compare the changes in bird species diversity before and after park construction 

Results: After the completion, the biodiversity of the wetland park has been enhanced, with the Jaccard similarity index reaching 0.83 which shows high similarity in community composition and low disturbance of the original bird community by the park construction. The G–F index rose from 0.7 to 0.8, and the D_F index increased from 13.83 to 21.16. Both forest bird and waterbird populations have seen growth, with newly recorded species being predominantly winter visitor, original design intent has been realized. Suggestions & Perspectives: we suggest that the future work should be strengthened in the aspects of biodiversity monitoring and assessment, the formulation of wetland park management regulations and operation and maintenance etc.

Aims: Urban forests serve as key reservoirs of biodiversity within cities. Yet, the ecological strategies of urban mammals and their responses to human activity remain understudied. This study aimed to: (1) document mammal species composition in the urban forests of central Chongqing; (2) analyze the functional traits structuring mammal communities; and (3) assess how native mammals respond to direct human presence and to free-roaming domestic cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). 

Methods: From October 2019 to April 2024, we deployed 45 infrared camera traps across 29 sites in central Chongqing, accumulating 5,814 effective camera days (mean ± SD: 200.48 ± 20.5 days per site). Functional traits—body size, dispersal ability, diet, life history, and habitat breadth—were used to construct a two-dimensional functional trait space. We applied kernel density estimation to analyze diel activity patterns and evaluated the temporal overlap between wildlife and human activity, including domestic cats and dogs. We further used Wilcoxon rank-sum tests to assess differences in species richness between sites with and without direct human activity. 

Results: We recorded 13 mammal species from 3 orders and 7 families, including two nationally protected species: The small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) and the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). Species with moderate body size, intermediate dispersal ability, and omnivorous diets clustered near the center of functional trait space, indicating convergence in adaptive strategies. In contrast, species at the periphery of trait space were more sensitive to human disturbance. For instance, wild boar (Sus scrofa) displayed more diurnal activity in areas without direct human presence, while reeves’ muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) exhibited compressed activity windows in areas frequented by cats, and temporal shifts in response to dog activity. Notably, domestic cats and dogs showed higher temporal overlap with native mammals than did direct human activity. 

Conclusion: Mammalian responses to human activity in urban forests are complex. Indirect anthropogenic pressures—especially those mediated by domestic cats and dogs—may pose greater risks to native wildlife than low-intensity human recreation. These findings provide important insights for urban biodiversity conservation and management.