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Some growth characteristics and relative competitive ability of invasive Spartina alterniflora and native Scirpus mariqueter
Zhongyi Chen, Bo Li, Jiakuan Chen
Biodiv Sci    2005, 13 (2): 130-136.   DOI: 10.1360/biodiv.040122
Abstract6973)      PDF (613KB)(52803)       Save

Spartina alterniflora,originating in North America, has been introduced to China and has now invaded many inter-tidal zones of gulfs and estuaries in China. With its spread, Scirpus mariqueter,a native grass species, has experienced a concurrent decrease in area. Based on field investigation at Chongming Dongtan Wetland and potted plant competition experiments at Fudan University, we compared growth characteristics and relative competitive ability between the two species. The results indicated that in terms of height, coverage, above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, and mean seed number per spike, values for Spartina alterniflora were all significantly higher than those of Scirpus mariqueter.However, the density and number of flowering tillers per square meter for Spartina alterniflora were significantly lower than those of Scirpus mariqueter.In terms of seed output per square meter and seed germination rate, there were no significant differences between the mature populations of the two species. Both interspecific and intraspecific competition between Spartina alterniflora and Scirpus mariqueter remarkably reduced the number of ramets, the proportion of fruiting ramets, the above-ground biomass and the number of corms (only Scirpus mariqueter has corms). The interspecific relative competitive ability (measured as relative neighbour effect index, RNE) of Spartina alterniflora was significantly greater than that of Scirpus mariqueter. The obvious growing advantage of Spartina alterniflora compared with Scirpus mariqueter might explain its greater interspecific competitive ability, which might explain its successful invasiveness into the native Scirpus mariqueter community in the Yangtze River estuary.

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Community assembly: the relative importance of neutral theory and niche theory
Kechang Niu, Yining Liu, Zehao Shen, Fangliang He, Jingyun Fang
Biodiv Sci    2009, 17 (6): 579-593.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2009.09142
Abstract12245)   HTML248)    PDF (439KB)(22376)       Save

Understanding species coexistence and the maintenance of biodiversity has long been the central interest of ecologists. The niche-based theory of community assembly has dominated community ecology for nearly a century, yet understanding of the mechanisms of species coexistence has remained elusive. The newly developed neutral theory of biodiversity has offered a promising alternative to the niche paradigm. The analytical elegance and simplicity of the neutral theory and its predictive power have made the theory widely popular. However, it is the very same simplicity of the theory (e.g. the symmetric assumption) that makes the theory vulnerable to stark criticisms. Widespread empirical evidence has shown that species in communities are not functionally symmetric; ecological equivalence is more a conceptual simplicity than a biological realism. Recognizing that niche and neutral processes do not have to diametrically oppose each other and a community is likely determined by the interplay of the two processes, ecologists currently are searching to reconcile the two theories by either incorporating drift into niche theory or niche into the neutral framework. However, this reconciliation process is still at its very early stage, we expect this direction will lead to a more complete understanding of community assembly mechanisms. In this paper, we provide a review on the brief histories of the niche and neutral theories, with the focus on comparing the distinct importance of the two theories in explaining community assembly. We discuss in details several integrated models that attempt to unify the niche and neutral theories. We argue that it is an essential step for any successful theory to withstand substantial experimental and field tests. The experimental tests of neutral theories are an important direction that has currently not received due attention.

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Cited: CSCD(155)
  
Species Diversity of Discomycetes in China
ZHUANG WENYING
Biodiv Sci    DOI: 10.17520/biods.1995043
Abstract5473)      PDF (202KB)(15005)       Save
  
Methods and protocols for plant community inventory
Jingyun Fang, Xiangping Wang, Zehao Shen, Zhiyao Tang, Jinsheng He, Dan Yu, Yuan Jiang, Zhiheng Wang, Chengyang Zheng, Jiangling Zhu, Zhaodi Guo
Biodiv Sci    2009, 17 (6): 533-548.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2009.09253
Abstract10756)   HTML238)    PDF (661KB)(14707)       Save

A plant community is an assemblage of plant populations that live in certain area, and interact with and adapt to one another in the context of long-term environmental changes. Plant communities maintain global ecosystem functions, and provide food and habitats for animals and other organisms. Plant communities also provide primary resources for human survival and development, and are therefore indispensable to human societies. China is among the countries with the most diverse plant communities in the world. However, no systematic national inventory has been conducted for Chinese plant communities. This fact obstructs exploitation and protection of China’s plant resources, and also hampers the development of the fields of Chinese ecology and geography. There is an urgent need to survey Chinese plant communities using consistent methods and protocols. In this paper, we review major concepts in plant community ecology, and propose a framework for developing plant community inventories based on recent progress in community ecology and our own experience with long-term field surveys. Our framework provides protocols for site selection and plot design, items to be measured in a plot, and measurements of functional traits of dominant species. We also review protocols for field surveys of large, long-term plots. The protocols proposed in this paper are expected to be a base for standardizing methodology for inventory of Chinese plant communities.

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Cited: CSCD(456)
  
Families and genera of Chinese angiosperms: a synoptic classification based on APG III
Bing Liu, Jianfei Ye, Su Liu, Yuan Wang, Yong Yang, Yangjun Lai, Gang Zeng, Qinwen Lin
Biodiv Sci    2015, 23 (2): 225-231.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2015052
Abstract6193)   HTML340)    PDF (3932KB)(14274)       Save

Angiosperms constitute the most diverse lineage of higher plants and are represented by ca. 300,000 living species that dominate the vegetation of terrestrial ecosystems. Number and composition of families, genera, and species are important to understanding global and regional biodiversity. Due to the rapid development of molecular systematics, circumscriptions of many traditional angiosperm families and genera have been revised. This study investigates circumscriptions of families and genera of native and introduced angiosperms in China according to the APG III classification system and recent phylogenetic studies. Results showed that there are 258 native and 55 introduced families (including 6 naturalized families), and 2,872 native and 1,605 introduced genera (including 152 naturalized genera) in China. A brief introduction to the historical and recent changes of circumscriptions of families and genera occurring in China was also provided. Our list included 115 newly recorded families and 1,729 newly recorded genera when compared to Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae, and 85 newly recorded families and 1,531newly recorded genera when compared to Flora of China.

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Cited: CSCD(23)
  
Red List of China’s Vertebrates
Zhigang Jiang, Jianping Jiang, Yuezhao Wang, E Zhang, Yanyun Zhang, Lili Li, Feng Xie, Bo Cai, Liang Cao, Guangmei Zheng, Lu Dong, Zhengwang Zhang, Ping Ding, Zhenhua Luo, Changqing Ding, Zhijun Ma, Songhua Tang, Wenxuan Cao, Chunwang Li, Huijian Hu, Yong Ma, Yi Wu, Yingxiang Wang, Kaiya Zhou, Shaoying Liu, Yueying Chen, Jiatang Li, Zuojian Feng, Yan Wang, Bin Wang, Cheng Li, Xuelin Song, Lei Cai, Chunxin Zang, Yan Zeng, Zhibin Meng, Hongxia Fang, Xiaoge Ping
Biodiv Sci    2016, 24 (5): 500-551.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2016076
Abstract14912)   HTML507)    PDF (1130KB)(13824)       English Version    Save

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Cited: CSCD(213)
  
On the concept of biodiversity
Biodiv Sci    1993, 01 (1): 20-22.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.1993005
Abstract6427)      PDF (277KB)(13544)       Save
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Cited: Baidu(16)
  
Measurement of biotic community diversity I α diversity (Part 2)
Biodiv Sci    1994, 02 (4): 231-239.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.1994038
Abstract6026)      PDF (585KB)(12943)       Save
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Cited: Baidu(83)
  
Alien invasive species in China: their damages and management strategies
WAN Fang-Hao, GUO Jian-Ying, WANG De-Hui
Biodiv Sci    2002, 10 (1): 119-125.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2002014
Abstract7358)      PDF (205KB)(11236)       Save
The impacts and invasion method of alien invasive species (AIS), and prevention and management of biological invasion are discussed. Biological invasion is becoming one of the most important factors threatening biodiversity and stability of various ecological systems in China. The impacts of these biological invasions are becoming a more serious problems with development and increase of global trade, transportation, international travel and ecological tourism. Harmful AIS often leads to irreversible species extinction, and results in substantial economic losses within managed and natural ecosystems, including agriculture, forestry, fishery and animal production. Newly invading weeds, insect pests and plant diseases frequently result in large scale outbreaks and persistent use of chemical pesticides. Successful invasion and spread of some major insect pests and weeds in China were caused by man made factors. These include decision mistakes and unintentional introduction of some plants, such as water hyacinth and alligator weed as pig food, irresponsible introduction actions taken by individual/group without any ecological concerns, and lack of rapid response mechanism for eradicating potentially AIS as soon as they appear. China is an agricultural country. Any biological invasion will be a "big bomb" for our agriculture and inevitably result in ecological and economic losses in specific ecosystem and specific geographic regions. Prevention of biological invasion is an important aspect for safeguarding the state′s ecological safety. Development and researches should focus on building the state capacity, research capacity, and management capacity for addressing AIS problem. Based on the urgent situation of AIS in China, priority for research and action plans concentrate on: developing methods to identify the origin and pathways of invasive population; understanding the biological and ecological bases of AIS; developing environmentally friendly methods for control of AIS; developing environmental impact assessment and risk analysis methods for AIS; and developing methods for the recovery of habitats after control of AIS.
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Cited: CSCD(168)
  
China’s mammalian diversity
Zhigang Jiang, Yong Ma, Yi Wu, Yingxiang Wang, Zuojian Feng, Kaiya Zhou, Shaoying Liu, Zhenhua Luo, Chunwang Li
Biodiv Sci    2015, 23 (3): 351-364.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2014202
Abstract5263)   HTML128)    PDF (1125KB)(10972)       Save

China’s mammalian fauna is unique: it possesses the endemic species and genera of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau; it has the relic families, Ailuropodidae and Lipotidae, of the Tertiary Period; more than half of the species of the Ochotonidae in the country are endemic; furthermore China is also the country with world most abundant ungulate diversity. In the new millennia, changes to the taxonomy of mammals of world were proposed. New mammalian species and new mammals were reported in China. Thus it is necessary to renew the inventory of China’s mammal diversity. During the compiling of The Red List of Endangered Species in China: Mammals, we collected the available data on China’s mammals (including those of Taiwan) and formed The Checklist of China’s Mammal Species 2015. For taxonomy of orders, we followed the existing theory using molecular phylogeny whereas for the classification of families and the taxa below family level, we followed the A Complete Checklist of Mammal Species and Subspecies in China: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference by Wang (2003) and Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference by Wilson & Reeder (2005). We also adopted Ungulate Taxonomy by Groves & Grubb (2011) to classify the ungulates in China. The initial list included species recorded in taxonomic books and field guides, new species and new records in literature before March 31, 2015. After five evaluation meetings and two rounds of evaluation by correspondence, we finalized The Checklist of China’s Mammal Species 2015, which includes 12 orders, 55 families, 245 genera and 673 species. Among those species, 18 new species (including 11 discovered with molecular biology methods, the validity of the species are still in dispute among zoologists), 18 new species records in country, and 60 subspecies were elevated to the status of species were added to the checklist. According to literature and expertise, we deleted 52 species which are not found in China. Of them, specimens of some species were collected only once, and then never been found again during following surveys. Taxonomists hold different opinions on 20 Glires, and those species need further investigation. Compared with the data of IUCN Red List (2014), the number of mammal species in China recorded in the study is surpassed that of Indonisia (670), China became the country with the most abundant mammal species in the world. The mammals in China accounted for 12.3% of the world total numbers of mammalian species. There are 150 endemic mammals in China, which accounted for 22.3% of the national total. 43% of the species in Lagomorpha are endemics to the country. The endemic ratio of Ochotonidae is even higher, 52% of the total. Endemic ratio of Eulipotyphla is 35%. About one fifth of Primates, Chiroptera and Rodentia in China are also endemics, including 12 new bat species discovered in the country during recent decade. The Checklist of China’s Mammal Species 2015 provides the most updated baseline information for biodiversity research and conservation.

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Cited: CSCD(86)
  
Soil microbial characteristics as bioindicators of soil health
Lixia Zhou, Mingmao Ding
Biodiv Sci    2007, 15 (2): 162-171.   DOI: 10.1360/biodiv.060290
Abstract8147)      PDF (357KB)(10302)       Save
Soil health is important for the sustainable development of terrestrial ecosystem. In this review, we summarizes the relationship between soil quality and soil microbial characteristics such as soil microbial community structure, soil microbial biomass and soil enzymatic activity in order to illustrate the function of soil microbial characteristics as bio-indicators of soil health. Many studies have showed that the soil nutrient is correlated with the quantity or the composition of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in soils. In general, higher ratio of soil bacteria indicates better soil quality and higher soil nutrient content. Soil microbial bio-mass is closely correlated with soil organic carbon, and the ratios of soil microbial biomass carbon to soil or-ganic carbon(Cmic : Corg) and microbial metabolic quotient (qCO2) reflect the use efficiency of soil organic C. The activity of soil enzymes are positively correlated with soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen. Therefore, soil microbial characteristics reflect the changes of soil quality and thus can be used as bio-indicators of soil health.
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Cited: CSCD(145)
  
Review and prospects on methodology and affecting factors of soil mi-crobial diversity
Ju Zhou, Ting Lei
Biodiv Sci    2007, 15 (3): 306-311.   DOI: 10.1360/biodiv.070069
Abstract6298)      PDF (221KB)(9892)       Save

Soil microorganisms are important components of soil ecosystem and play central roles in biogeochemical cycling such as organic matter decomposition, mineral nutrient release, and energy transformation. Along with the intensive comprehension of the importance of biodiversity and the rapid development of methodology, more and more studies have focused on soil microbial diversity. This review introduces the current development of methodology and affecting factors of soil microbial diversity. We also discussed the directions of future research on soil microbial diversity.

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Cited: CSCD(109)
  
Beta-diversity partitioning: methods, applications and perspectives
Xingfeng Si, Yuhao Zhao, Chuanwu Chen, Peng Ren, Di Zeng, Lingbing Wu, Ping Ding
Biodiv Sci    2017, 25 (5): 464-480.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2017024
Abstract10257)   HTML449)    PDF (1371KB)(9841)       Save

Beta diversity describes the variation in species composition among communities within a region and it is determined by two antithetic processes: species turnover (or species replacement), and nestedness (or difference in richness). Beta-diversity partitioning aims to separate these two processes when examining species composition among communities, and to reveal their underlying mechanisms. Since 2010, the partitioning methods were proposed following two dominant frameworks: the BAS method proposed by Andrés Baselga in 2010 (partitioning overall beta diversity into turnover and nestedness components) and the POD method proposed by János Podani and Dénes Schmera in 2011 and José C. Carvalho et al. in 2012 (partitioning overall beta diversity into species replacement and richness difference components). With the continuous debate on the nature of the BAS and POD methods, studies on beta-diversity partitioning have developed rapidly worldwide. We reviewed journal articles in the field of beta-diversity partitioning since 2010. Results showed that the number of publications and citations using the BAS method were greater than those using the POD method (75% vs. 20%). In those publications, most of study sites were located in Europe (45%) and research taxa were dominated by animals (64%). Here, we introduce the history and development of beta-diversity partitioning, potential applications in studying biodiversity distributions across spatial-temporal scales (latitudinal/altitudinal gradients, habitat fragmentation, seasonal and annual dynamics), multiple-faceted diversity (taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity), and comparisons among various biological taxa. We point out the following directions in the field of beta-diversity partitioning in the future: (1) the synthesis and comparative analysis of the methods of beta-diversity partitioning; (2) examining patterns of overall beta diversity and its components by incorporating species abundance; and (3) testing the generality of results yielded from beta-diversity partitioning across large scales.

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Cited: CSCD(31)
  
Roles of springtails in soil ecosystem
Jianxiu Chen, Zhichun Ma, Haijuan Yan, Feng Zhang
Biodiv Sci    2007, 15 (2): 154-161.   DOI: 10.1360/biodiv.060288
Abstract7423)      PDF (370KB)(9657)       Save
The springtails are widespread small to tiny arthropods in soil ecosystem. They play important roles in the circulation of soil materials, development of soil, formation of soil micro-structure, improvement of soil physical and chemical properties, and the maintenance of soil living community. The diversity, community structure, and species composition of springtails in the soil reflect the status of soil quality and con-tamination. The important roles of springtails in the soil ecosystem, their potential values in the ecological practices and the recent advances and prospects are introduced in the present paper.
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Cited: CSCD(65)
  
Progress of biological invasions research in China over the last decade
Ruiting Ju, Hui Li, Chengjen Shih, Bo Li
Biodiv Sci    2012, 20 (5): 581-611.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2012.31148
Abstract5310)   HTML83)    PDF (737KB)(9642)       Save

As one of the five major global environmental problems, invasive species have posed serious threats to native ecosystems, public health, and regional economies. Although much progress has been made in the field of biological invasions research in China over the last decade, there are still large knowledge gaps. This paper reviews progress in the field of biological invasions research since 2000 as it relates to China, covering the diversity, colonization and immigration patterns of invasive species, mechanisms and ecological effects of biological invasions, and management and control of invasive species. In China, 529 invasive alien species have been identified, which originated primarily from South and North America, and the major taxa included terrestrial plants, terrestrial invertebrates, and microorganisms. We found a higher prevalence of invasive species in the eastern and southern provinces, compared to the western and northern provinces in China. This pattern is likely due to the differences in the level of economic development and environmental suitability between the two regions. Moreover, with further economic development, China may face more serious biological invasions in the future. These invasions of alien species are largely the combined results of the interactions between the intrinsic traits of these species along with resource opportunities and disturbances by human beings. Many mechanisms are responsible for successful invasions of alien species, but phenotypic plasticity, adaptive evolution, enemy release, interspecific mutualism or commensalism, and new allelochemicals may be primary causative factors. Biological invasions in China have caused serious impacts on native ecosystems, including biodiversity and ecosystem services, alteration of biogeochemical cycles, threats to agricultural and forestry production, traffic and shipping, environmental safety, and public facilities. China has also made progress in the detection and monitoring of invasive species, risk analysis, biological control, radical elimination, and ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems. We suggest several issues that need to be addressed in invasive species research in the future, including territory-wide inventories, evolutionary ecology and genomics, direct and indirect ecosystem-level consequences, interactions between major components of global change and biological invasions, and management and control technologies.

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Cited: CSCD(83)
  
Species-area relationship in biological communities
Zhiyao Tang, Xiujuan Qiao, Jingyun Fang
Biodiv Sci    2009, 17 (6): 549-559.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2009.09144
Abstract5652)   HTML76)    PDF (369KB)(9591)       Save

The manner in which species richness increases with increasing sampling area is among the important laws of ecology. However, forms and parameters of the species-area relationships vary depending on sampling methods, climate, and spatial scales. Because the species-area relationships connect biodiversity at different scales, they are used for estimating species richness at local or regional scales, and for assessing regional biodiversity losses. Here, we review recent developments in the forms, spatial variation in parameters, applications, and scale-dependence of species-area relationships. As a case study, we used species-area relationships to estimate number of plant species in different regions of the Qinling Mountains, and found that the well-consistent estimated and recorded numbers of species were achieved for different nature reserves in the Qinling Mountains.

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Cited: CSCD(45)
  
Species composition and geographical distribution of fishes in Tungsha Island and Taiping Island in the South China Sea
Kwang-Tsao Shao, Jeng-Ping Chen, Ching-Yi Chen, Cheing-Hua Huang, Jen-Wei Kuo
Biodiv Sci    2011, 19 (6): 737-763.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2011.27133
Abstract4310)   HTML23)    PDF (533KB)(9543)       Save

This paper summarizes all the reef fishes collected in Tungsha (Pratas) Island and Taiping Island (Nansha or Spratly) in the South China Sea, along with records of these two islands from literatures and databases since 1975. A total number of 73 families and 652 species in Tungsha Island as well as 56 families and 466 species in Taiping Island were obtained, with 76 families and 759 species found in both Islands. The reason why the species number in Taiping is less than that of Tungsha is because the reef area of Taiping is much smaller and fewer surveys were conducted. Based on the analysis of zoogeographical distribution range of each species, we found that almost all the species recorded in the two islands are widely distributed species in Indo-Pacific, Indo-western Pacific and western Pacific. Only one species, Chrysiptera chrysocephala, was found only in the South China Sea. This result infers that the fish fauna in the South China Sea can fully exchange with that in the surrounding waters or the Coral Triangle region, and any geographical isolation or speciation phenomenon is not discernible. In addition, although the Sørensen similarity index between Taiping and Tungsha reached 85.69%, a total of 240 species is absent from either Taiping or Tungsha, i.e. 165 species were recorded in both Tungsha and Taiwan but absent at Taiping, and 75 species were recorded in both Taiping and Taiwan but absent at Tungsha. Furthermore, most of the 21 and 20 species which were recorded only in Taiping and Tungsha, respectively, are hard-to-survey rare species. We speculate that our surveys in both islands are rather insufficient. If the investigation could be more intensive and longer-term, the similarity of fish faunas between these two islands will be even higher.

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Cited: CSCD(10)
  
Three “What”: mission of a botanic garden
Deyuan Hong
Biodiv Sci    2016, 24 (6): 728.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2016158
Abstract2362)   HTML38)    PDF (336KB)(9493)       Save
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Cited: Baidu(3) CSCD(6)
  
All Papers in This Issue
Biodiv Sci   
Abstract   (1300)      PDF (9256KB)(9447)       Save
  
The updated checklists of amphibians and reptiles of China
Kai Wang, Jinlong Ren, Hongman Chen, Zhitong Lyu, Xianguang Guo, Ke Jiang, Jinmin Chen, Jiatang Li, Peng Guo, Yingyong Wang, Jing Che
Biodiv Sci    2020, 28 (2): 189-218.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2019238
Accepted: 27 March 2020

Abstract13821)   HTML433)    PDF (4341KB)(9374)       Save

We updated the checklists of extant, native amphibians and reptiles of China based on the previously published checklist of reptiles in 2015, the online checklist of amphibians on the database AmphibiaChina, newly published data as of December 2019, and previously uncollected literature prior to 2015. In total, the amphibian fauna of China consists of 515 species in 62 genera, 13 families, and three orders (Anura: 431 species in 47 genera and nine families; Caudata: 82 species in 14 genera and four families; Gymnophiona: one species in one genus and one family), while the reptilian fauna of China consists of 511 species in 135 genera, 35 families, and three orders (Crocodylia: one species in one genus and one family; Testudines: 34 species in 18 genera and six families; Squamata 466 species in 116 genera and 28 families [Serpentes: 256 species in 73 genera, 18 families; Lacertilia: 211 species in 43 genera and 10 families]). Specifically, for amphibians between 2015 and 2019, one family was recorded from China for the first time, two new genera were described, a genus was resurrected, a genus was recorded from China for the first time, 74 new, valid species were either described or resurrected, 18 recognized species were recorded from China for the first time, and six genera and eight species were considered as junior synonyms. For reptiles between 2015 and 2019, five subfamilies were elevated to the full family status, one new subfamily and a new genus were described, three genera were resurrected, three recognized genera were recorded from China for the first time, 35 new species were described, two species were resurrected from synonyms, six subspecies were elevated to the full species status, 10 recognized species were recorded from China for the first time, four genera and four species were considered as junior synonyms, and distribution records of one genus and four recognized species were removed from China. Furthermore, by reviewing literature before 2015, we make additional changes on the previous reptile checklist, including adding new records of three genera, elevating three subspecies to full species status, adding new records of three recognized species, synonymizing three genera and two species as junior synonyms, and removing the distribution record of a single recognized species from China. Lastly, we revise the Chinese common names of some reptilian groups with recomandations to maintain the stability of the Chinese common names. The number of new species and new national records for amphibians and reptiles between 2015 and 2019 in China accounts for 17.1% and 10.2% of the total number of species in each group, respectively. Because new species are described at considerable speed and given the constant changes in the taxonomy of China’s herpetofuna, it is crucial to update the checklists regularly and discuss the existing taxonomic problems, so that such information reflects the most current state of knowledge and are available for taxonomic researchers and conservation biologists alike.

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Cited: CSCD(30)
  
A review of beta diversity studies
Shengbin Chen, Zhiyun Ouyang, Weihua Xu, Yi Xiao
Biodiv Sci    2010, 18 (4): 323-335.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2010.323
Abstract6442)   HTML114)    PDF (440KB)(8836)       Save

Beta diversity is an important component of biological diversity, measuring compositional change in species assemblages across temporal and spatial scales. Beta diversity concerns not only a number of ecological and evolutionary issues, but can also guide the selection of protected areas and help to optimize conservation networks. It has thus become a hot topic in biodiversity research in recent years. Researchers have used various measures and analytical methods to investigate patterns of beta diversity and its underlying mechanisms for various taxa and in different regions. Here, we reviewed literature from the past decade pertaining to the following aspects of beta diversity: metrics, temporal and spatial patterns, determinants and applications in biodiversity conservation. Whittaker introduced the term beta diversity in 1960, but defined it vaguely. As the concept of beta diversity evolved, a high variety of measures were developed to quantify the concept. The comparison of results from different studies may be hindered by the variety of measures used to quantify beta diversity. Presently, the most popular methods for measuring beta diversity are similarity/dissimilarity coefficients such as Jaccard index and Sørensen index. In the last few years, several methods to quantify beta diversity have emerged, some of which are worth noting. Beta diversity depends on temporal scale, spatial scale and taxonomic scale, and decreases with increasing analytical grain size. There is no consensus among scientists that beta diversity decreases with latitude, i.e. that it is higher in tropics and lower near the poles. Beta diversity is high within mountain ranges and at the interface of biogeographic realms; thus, larger/more reserves are needed in these regions to cover the entire gradient of species turnover. Studies on beta diversity across temporal scales have shown that climatic change has resulted in shifts in species composition through time, and that the migration of species between different continents/regions has led to biotic homogenization. Based on a thorough review of beta diversity literature, we think the following questions might be the focus of future research: (1) the influence of evolutionary history and biological characteristics of different taxonomic groups on their beta diversity; (2) the influence of temporal/spatial scales on beta diversity and its determinants; and (3) the effect of anthropogenic activities on beta diversity.

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Cited: CSCD(76)
  
Methodology of comprehensive biodiversity assessment
Bentai Wan, Haigen Xu, Hui Ding, Zhilei Liu, Jie Wang
Biodiv Sci    2007, 15 (1): 97-106.   DOI: 10.1360/biodiv.060132
Abstract6239)      PDF (432KB)(8726)       Save
The six meetings of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity held in 2002 adopted the goal of “significantly reducing the rate of biodiversity loss worldwide by 2010”, and requested Parties to develop biodiversity assessment indicators and to conduct biodiversity assessment. This paper puts forward five indicators for comprehensive biodiversity assessment, i.e. species richness, diversity of ecosystem types, completeness of vertical stratification of vegetation, endemism, and extent of biological invasions, based on the principles of scientific approach, representativeness, and practicality. Methods for comprehensive biodiversity assessment were established, and a national biodiversity assessment was con-ducted by taking 31 provinces (including municipalities and autonomous regions) as the basic assessment units. Biodiversity of provinces was classified into four grades. Yunnan, Sichuan and Guangxi boast highly rich biodiversity. Guizhou, Hubei, Guangdong, Hunan, Chongqing, Fujian, Tibet, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hainan, Gansu, Xinjiang, and Shaanxi boast quite high biodiversity. Henan, Anhui, Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and Beijing have moderate biodiversity. Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Shanghai, Liaoning, Ningxia, Qinghai, Jiangsu, Heilongjiang, and Tianjin have poor biodiversity.
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Cited: CSCD(52)
  
Threatened Species List of China’s Higher Plants
Haining Qin, Yong Yang, Shiyong Dong, Qiang He, Yu Jia, Lina Zhao, Shengxiang Yu, Huiyuan Liu, Bo Liu, Yuehong Yan, Jianying Xiang, Nianhe Xia, Hua Peng, Zhenyu Li, Zhixiang Zhang, Xingjin He, Linke Yin, Yulin Lin, Quanru Liu, Yuantong Hou, Yan Liu, Qixin Liu, Wei Cao, Jianqiang Li, Shilong Chen, Xiaohua Jin, Tiangang Gao, Wenli Chen, Haiying Ma, Yuying Geng, Xiaofeng Jin, Chaoyang Chang, Hong Jiang, Lei Cai, Chunxin Zang, Jianyong Wu, Jianfei Ye, Yangjun Lai, Bing Liu, Qinwen Lin, Naxin Xue
Biodiv Sci    2017, 25 (7): 696-744.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2017144
Abstract8071)   HTML337)    PDF (2682KB)(8621)       English Version    Save
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Ecological niche modeling and its applications in biodiversity conservation
Gengping Zhu,Guoqing Liu,Wenjun Bu,Yubao Gao
Biodiv Sci    2013, 21 (1): 90-98.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2013.09106
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Based on the environmental variables that associated with species’ occurrence records, ecological niche modeling (ENM) seeks to characterize environmental conditions suitable for a particular species and then identify where suitable environmental habitats are distributed in the space. Recently, ENM has been used increasingly in biological invasion, conservation biology, biological responses to climate change, disease spatial transmission, and variety aspects of ecology and evolutionary biology research. However, the theoretical background of these applications is generally poorly understood, leading to artifactual conclusions in some studies (e.g. niche differentiation during species’ invasion). In this paper we discuss the relationship between niche and geographic distribution and introduce the theoretical basis of ENM, along with relationships between the niche and ENM. Abiotic/biotic, historical and dispersal factors are three key elements that determine species’ geographic distributions at different scales. By using environmental variables derived from distributional records, ENM is based on observations that already include effects of biotic interactions, therefore ENM is used to characterize somewhere between the realized niche and potential niche, not the fundamental niche. Grinnellian and Eltonian niches are both manifested in ENM calibration, depending on the types of variables used to fit model, the natural spatial scale at which they can be measured, and the dispersal of individuals throughout the environment. Applications of ENM in understanding ecological requirements of species, discovery of new species or populations, nature reserve design, predicting potential invasion, modeling biological responses to climate change, niche conservatism, and species delimitation are discussed in this paper.

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The species-energy hypothesis as a mechanism for species richness patterns
Zhiheng Wang, Zhiyao Tang, Jingyun Fang
Biodiv Sci    2009, 17 (6): 613-624.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2009.09161
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Large-scale patterns of species diversity are one of the most important and attractive issues for ecology and biogeography. Many hypotheses have been proposed to understand the mechanisms that shape and maintain the diversity patterns. Among them, the energy hypothesis, which focuses on the influence of energy on species diversity, has generated the most attention. Based on the forms of energy and the mechanisms of energy effects on diversity patterns, five versions of the energy hypothesis have been recognized, i.e. productivity hypothesis, water-energy dynamic hypothesis, ambient energy hypothesis, freezing tolerance hypothesis, and metabolic theory of ecology. The current paper reviews the development of the energy hypothesis, and then presents the context, energy forms, variables, predictions, and underlying mechanisms for the five versions of the energy hypothesis. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages, shortcomings, and challenges of each version of the energy hypothesis.

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Advances and challenges in resolving the angiosperm phylogeny
Liping Zeng,Ning Zhang,Hong Ma
Biodiv Sci    2014, 22 (1): 21-39.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2014.13189
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Angiosperm phylogenetics investigates the evolutionary history and relationships of angiosperms based on the construction of phylogenetic trees. Since the 1990s, nucleotide or amino acid sequences have been widely used for this and angiosperm phylogenetic analysis has advanced from using single or a combination of a few organellar genes to whole plastid genome sequences, resulting in the widely accepted modern molecular systematics of angiosperms. The current framework of the angiosperm phylogeny includes highly supported basal angiosperm relationships, five major clades (eudicots, monocots, magnoliids, Chloranthales, and Ceratophyllales), orders grouped within these clades, and core groups in the monocots or eudicots. However, organellar genes have some limitations; these involve uniparental inheritance in most instances and a relatively low percentage of phylogenetic informative sites. Thus, they are unable to resolve some relationships even when whole plastid genome sequences are used. Therefore, the utility of biparentally inherited nuclear genes with more information about evolutionary history, has gradually received more attention. Nevertheless, there are still some plant groups that are difficult to place in the angiosperm phylogeny, such as those involving the relative positions of the five major groups as well as those of several orders of eudicots. In this review, we discuss the applications, advantages and disadvantages of marker genes, the deep relationships that have been resolved in angiosperm phylogeny, groups with uncertain positions, and the challenges that remain in resolving an accurate phylogeny for angiosperms.

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Recent advancement in microbial environmental research using metagenomics tools
Xin Sun,Ying Gao,Yunfeng Yang
Biodiv Sci    2013, 21 (4): 393-400.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2013.08050
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Metagenomics is the study of microbial meta-genomes from environmental samples, which is independent on the ability to cultivate microbes in the laboratory. It provides a new way of examining the microbial world and has been widely used in microbiological research for the past decade. Sequencing-based metagenomic technology, represented by 454 and Illumina sequencing platforms, and microarray-based technology, often using GeoChip, are two of the most commonly used technologies in metagenomics. Sequencing-based technologies are capable of detecting new microbes and genes, but are limited with regard to sequence depth and quantification, and present problems of contamination when used on complex microbial communities. Microarray-based technologies are complementary to sequencing-based technologies in regard to advantages and disadvantages. They have been widely used, for example, in studies of climate change, energy, engineering, metallurgy, extreme environments and human health. However, their use in examining the extremely complex and diverse microbial world merits further technical development, with a focus on integrating both technologies and the development of appropriate bioinformatics tools.

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Alien terrestrial herbs in China: diversity and ecological insights
Bo Yang, Yangjin Zhuoga, Xiaoyun Pan, Haigen Xu, Bo Li
Biodiv Sci    2010, 18 (6): 660-666.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.2010.660
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A database of alien flora is important for better understanding the patterns of plant invasions, as well as explicating the mechanisms promoting plant invasion at local, regional and global scales. However, little attention has been paid to the construction of such a database of terrestrial alien herbs in China. Here, we attempt to summarize literature and reveal chronological and biogeographical patterns of alien herbaceous plant invasions. In total, 800 herbaceous alien species were identified, belonging to 37 orders and 72 families, ten families which account for 60% of the total flora. The families containing large numbers of species include Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Cactaceae, Poaceae and Brassicaceae. Species originating from the Americas made up 47% of total species. In relation to life forms, most species are perennial herbs (293 species, 40%) and annuals (272 species, 37%). About 46% of species are often found in highly disturbed habitats with rich resources. Our results suggest that, in China, terrestrial alien herbs are distributed throughout the entire country, with particularly high species richness in the Southeast (23% of total richness, 4 species per 10,000 km2). Eighty percent of alien plants were introduced into China intentionally, and there has been a steady increase in the number of neophyte species over the last two centuries, of which about 90% were introduced after 1800s and 60% post-1950s. The information on diversity and ecological characteristics of terrestrial alien herbs provided in this paper can be used for designing national management strategies for alien plants in China.

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A revised taxonomy for Chinese reptiles
Bo Cai, Yuezhao Wang, Yueying Chen, Jiatang Li
Biodiv Sci    2015, 23 (3): 365-382.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2015037
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Based on taxonomic and phylogenetic studies, we presented a comprehensive reassessment of the classification systems, updated corresponding Chinese scientific names and concluded the Checklist of Chinese Reptilia. Our analysis suggested that in China there are a total of 3 orders, 30 families, 132 genera, and 462 reptile species. The order Crocodylia includes one family, one genus, and one species. The order, Testudines includes 6 families, 18 genera, and 33 species. The order Squamata includes the suborder Lacertilia and Serpentes. Lacertilia includes 10 families, 41 genera, and 189 species and Serpentes includes 13 families, 72 genera, and 239 species. Compared to Fauna Sinica (Reptilia 1): General Accounts of Reptilia,Testudoformes and Crocodiliformes, Fauna Sinica (Reptilia 2): Squamata (Lacertilia) and Snakes of China, we added 81 species, revised 2 species and excluded 12 synonymous, 6 hybrid, and 7 undistributed reptile species. At the genus level, there are 23 additional, 6 revised, 15 synonymous genera. At the family level, there are 5 additional and 2 revised families. There is no change at the order or suborder levels. Studies of morphology and molecular phylogeny on taxonomic categories of reptiles reflects several divergences. We discusssed these controversies and explained choices of the Checklist of Chinese Reptilia in this article.

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Cited: CSCD(21)
  
All Papers in This Issue
Biodiv Sci   
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A review on the elevational patterns of plant species diversity
TANG Zhi-Yao, FANG Jing-Yun
Biodiv Sci    2004, 12 (1): 20-28.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2004004
Abstract6556)      PDF (358KB)(8129)       Save
Patterns of biodiversity along environmental gradients is one of the basic issues in the biodiversity studies. The elevational gradient incorporates multiple resource gradients which vary continuously in different fashions. As patterns along environmental gradients are significantly scaledependent, we reviewed plant diversity patterns along the elevational gradient in different scales: α diversity, β diversity and γ diversity, as well the factors which maintain these patterns. At the local scale, there is no fixed elevational pattern for herb species richness. For woody plants, the monotonic decrease of species richness as elevation increases is thought to be a general pattern, yet other patterns exist. The decrease of β diversity with increasing elevation has been observed in different ecosystems. Species richness in different elevational bands exhibits two different patterns, monotonic decrease and humpshaped pattern along the elevational gradient.
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The categorization and analysis on the geographic distribution patterns of Chinese alien invasive plants
Xiaoling Yan, Quanru Liu, Haiyang Shou, Xianfeng Zeng, Yong Zhang, Li Chen, Yan Liu, Haiying Ma, Shuyan Qi, Jinshuang Ma
Biodiv Sci    2014, 22 (5): 667-676.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2014.14069
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We used the literature, field investigations, specimen records and taxonomic research to categorize 515 alien invasive plant species from 72 families and 285 genera reported from China according to their biological and ecological characters, extent of spread within China, and amount of damage caused. Each species was put into one of 5 categories: malignant invasion (34 species), serious invasion (69 species), local invasion (85 species), general invasion (80 species), and species requiring further observation (247 species). According to our analyses of geographic distributional patterns, Chinese alien invasive plants were highly concentrated in the southwestern and eastern coastal provinces of China, and were rapidly spreading to inland China. These categories and distributional patterns of alien invasive plants could help to assess and control their invasive risk. Our results provide baseline information on Chinese alien invasive plants; and, at the same time, we put forward preliminary suggestions for further study, public education and the management of the important alien invasive plants in China.

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Cited: CSCD(90)
  
Progress in environmental transcriptomics based on next-generation high-throughput sequencing
Yuanfeng Cai,Zhongjun Jia
Biodiv Sci    2013, 21 (4): 401-410.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2013.10031
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Environmental transcriptomics, which focuses on microbial mRNA derived from complex environmental samples using the RNA-Seq method, allows investigation of expression and patterns of regulation of functional genes in natural microbial communities. This review outlines the basic protocol of environmental transcriptomics, from sample collection and preservation, total RNA isolation, mRNA enrichment, cDNA synthesis to high-throughput sequencing and data analysis. Main technological problems are pointed out, such as low yield of mRNA in environmental samples, contamination of mRNA by various impurities like humic substances and limited degree of rRNA removal. Recent progresses in specific methodologies to improve the quantity and quality of mRNA, especially in RNA extraction, purification and the enrichment of mRNA, are outlined. Bioinformatics methods that deal with the large volume of RNA-Seq data are addressed, such as quality control of the sequence data, sequence assembly, detection and removal of rRNA, gene annotation and functional classification, and detection of differently expressed genes. The widely application of environmental transcriptomics, including detection of new genes, study of gene expression and regulation of microorganisms in different environments, and the analysis of metabolic pathways of special organic substances, are also highlighted. Environmental transcriptomics, combined with the further development of sequencing technology and bioinformatics tools in the future, are likely to be comprehensively used in the study of environmental microbiology.

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Cited: CSCD(15)
  
Plant DNA barcodes promote the development of phylogenetic commu- nity ecology
Nancai Pei, Jinlong Zhang, Xiangcheng Mi, Xuejun Ge
Biodiv Sci    2011, 19 (3): 284-294.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2011.11250
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There is a dynamic interplay between ecology and evolution within community ecology. Phylogenetic community ecology describes the intraspecific and interspecific relationships within a community, aiming to reveal the processes driving community assembly at multiple scales. Previous research has highlighted the role of phylogenetic and historical biogeographical data in explaining current patterns of global biodiversity. The success of using DNA barcoding in the construction of tropical forest community phylogenies highlights the usefulness and challenges of long-term research on community ecology and phylogenetics based on forest dynamic plots. In this paper, we illustrate the feasibility of a synthesis between community ecology and evolutionary biology in order to resolve particular ecological issues on community phylogenetic structure, community niche structure, biogeography, and trait evolution. We summarize progress on the development of a plant DNA barcoding system, and introduce the usage of a combination of DNA markers (rbcL+matK+trnH-psbA) for fast species discrimination and community phylogenetic reconstruction. We also explore the utilization of well-resolved phylogenies to understand community ecology. We discuss the limitations of core plant DNA barcodes (rbcL+matK) when identifying congeners, and propose an improved sequencing strategy suitable for studies at the community level. We expect that plant DNA barcodes will prove very useful for the study of species diversity, mechanisms of biodiversity maintenance, phylogenetic beta diversity and functional trait evolution.

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Influence of climate change on wild plants and the conservation strategies
Lei Li, Jiakuan Chen
Biodiv Sci    2014, 22 (5): 549-563.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2014.14124
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Recently, the influence of climate change on wild plants has attracted keen attention from international scholars. In an effort to elucidate the importance of considering climate change effects in the conservation and management of wild plants, we first summarized the status of global climate change in the world and its trends in next 100 years, as well as the conservation status of plants in China in recent years. Specifically, we reviewed research on the potential influences of global warming on wild plants from several aspects, including northward migration of plants with shifting climate zones, glacial recession in polar regions, warming in high altitude mountains, sea level rise, advance of temperature rise in early spring, desert steppe soil temperature increase, drought-flood cycle alterations, as well as the response of interspecies relationships and sensitive plant taxa to global warming. Then, we analyzed the general trends of future global warming effects on wild plants by reviewing global ecosystem sensitivity, plant diversity, plant migration and climate sink areas, species adaptation and extinction, as well as plant phenology in the context of global warming. Finally, we suggest that key areas of plant diversity should be delineated and protected, with a focus on climate-sensitive taxa and plants that are involved with plant-animal interactions that will be affected by climate factors. The impacts of global climate change should be taken into account in the further development of nature reserves. We also recommend the establishment of a database for the long-term and systematic monitoring of wild plant distribution and population dynamics on a global scale. Technologies for ex-situ conservation of wild plants and information networks should be developed. Quantitative indices and corresponding models relating the response of wild plants to global climate change should be also developed. Finally, we suggest that the conservation and management of wild plants in response to global climate change should be listed as priorities by associate foundations.

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Large-scale patterns in species diversity of fishes in the Yangtze River Basin
Xiaodong Yu, Tianhong Luo, Hongzhang Zhou
Biodiv Sci    2005, 13 (6): 473-495.   DOI: 10.1360/biodiv.050121
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We synthesized the information on fish diversity in the Yangtze River Basin, documenting 378 species/subspecies that had been recorded and described from the basin, belonging to 14 orders, 32 families and 144 genera. Of these, 338 species/subspecies are freshwater fishes, of which 269 species/subspecies are from the Cypriniformes. Of the total, 11 species are migratory fishes, and 29 are species of brackish water of the estuary. A total of 162 species/subspecies are endemic to the river and 69 are threatened. We divided the Yangtze River Basin into 19 sub-basins. Except for the two sub-basins of the headwaters and the upper and middle reaches of Jinshajiang River, the other 17 sub-basins showed similar values in species richness and G-F diversity indices, although the values were higher in the upper reaches than in the middle and lower reaches. However, the proportion of endemic species decreased gradually from the headwater to the estuary of the basin in parallel with the gradient of elevation. Jaccard similarity analysis showed that the 19 sub-basins were clustered into three groups: (1) the headwaters and the upper and middle reaches of Jinshajiang River, located in the eastern Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and Hengduan Mountains; (2) the other sub-basins of the upper reaches, located in Western Sichuan Plateau, Yungui Plateau, Sichuan Basin, and Qinling-Daba Mountains; (3) the middle and lower reaches, belonging to the Huaiyang Mountains, Jiangnan Hills and the plain along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. This grouping reflects the environmental characteristics of the basins and the three large topographic plat-forms of the Chinese mainland.
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Antibiotic resistance genes in the environment
Jianqiang Su,Fuyi Huang,Yongguan Zhu
Biodiv Sci    2013, 21 (4): 481-487.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2013.07071
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Antibiotic resistance and its spread in bacteria are topics of great importance in global research. In this paper, we review recent progress in understanding sources, dissemination, distribution and discovery of novel antibiotics resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment. Bacteria exhibiting intrinsic resistance and antibiotic resistant bacteria in feces from humans and animals are the major sources of ARGs occurring in the environment. A variety of novel ARGs have been discovered using functional metagenomics. Recently, the long-term overuse of antibotics in drug therapy and animal husbandry has led to an increase in diversity and abundance of ARGs, causing the environmental dissemination of ARGs in aquatic water, sewage treatment plants, rivers, sediment and soil. Future research should focus on dissemination mechanisms of ARGs, the discovery of novel ARGs and their resistant mechanisms, and the establishment of environmental risk assessment systems for ARGs.

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Advances in species coexistence theory
Chengjin Chu, Youshi Wang, Yu Liu, Lin Jiang, Fangliang He
Biodiv Sci    2017, 25 (4): 345-354.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2017034
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How species coexist locally is a fundamental question in community ecology. Classical coexistence theory underscores the importance of niche differentiation between species and focuses on specific coexistence mechanisms. Studies on these specific coexistence mechanisms have profoundly contributed to understanding species coexistence at the local scale and inspired ecologists to create a more general contemporary coexistence theory. Under the contemporary coexistence theory, species differences are categorized into two groups: niche differences and average fitness differences. Niche differences serve as stabilizing mechanisms that promote species coexistence, whereas average fitness differences are related to equalizing mechanisms that drive competitive exclusion. In this paper we provide a detailed review of contemporary coexistence theory, including its definition and theoretical models, empirical tests of these models and their applications to biodiversity studies. Coexistence theory has applications in a number of other areas including biodiversity conservation and management in a changing world beyond the basic concept of how communities are structured. We show how contemporary coexistence theory has advanced the niche-based classic coexistence theory, helping us to better understand the underlying mechanisms of community assembly and biodiversity maintenance.

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The present status and conservation of the biodiversity in Hong Kong
Lawrence Chau, Michael Lau, Billy Hau, Gloria Siu
Biodiv Sci    DOI: 10.17520/biods.2000004
Abstract6377)      PDF (376KB)(7456)       Save
  
Plant functional traits, functional diversity, and ecosystem functioning: current knowledge and perspectives
Lingjie Lei, Deliang Kong, Xiaoming Li, Zhenxing Zhou, Guoyong Li
Biodiv Sci    2016, 24 (8): 922-931.   DOI: 10.17520/biods.2015295
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Increasing attention has recently been focused on the linkages between plant functional traits and ecosystem functioning. A comprehensive understanding of these linkages can facilitate to address the ecological consequences of plant species loss induced by human activities and climate change, and provide theoretical support for ecological restoration and ecosystem management. In recent twenty years, the evidence of strong correlations between plant functional traits and changes in ecosystem processes is growing. More importantly, ecosystem functioning can be predicted more precisely, using plant functional trait diversity (i.e., functional diversity) than species diversity. In this paper, we first defined plant functional traits and their important roles in determining ecosystem processes. Then, we review recent advances in the relationships between ecosystem functions and plant functional traits and their diversity. Finally, we propose several important future research directions, including (1) exploration of the relationships between aboveground and belowground plant traits and their roles in determining ecosystem functioning, (2) incorporation of the impacts of consumer and global environmental change into the correlation between plant functional traits and ecosystem functioning, (3) effects of functional diversity on ecosystem multifunctionality, and (4) examination of the functional diversity-ecosystem functioning relationship at different temporal and spatial scales.

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Cited: CSCD(38)

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