Standards and recommendations for passive acoustic monitoring of birds in China

doi:10.17520/biods.2025474

Biodiv Sci ›› 2026, Vol. 34 ›› Issue (5): 25474. DOI: 10.17520/biods.2025474 cstr: 32101.14.biods.2025474

• Technology and Methodology • Previous Articles Next Articles

Standards and recommendations for passive acoustic monitoring of birds in China

Zezhou Hao¹(), Xiaoli Shen²(), Xingfeng Si³^,⁴(), Yanyan Zhao⁵(), Chentao Wei⁶(), Fei Wu⁷(), Xiaoqing Xu⁸(), Pinjia Que⁹(), Lu Dong¹⁰(), Fangyuan Hua¹¹(), Lixun Zhang¹²(), Chengyun Zhang¹³^,^*()(), Yang Liu¹⁴^,^*()()

¹ Research Institute of Tropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Guangzhou 510520, China
² Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
³ State Key Laboratory of Vegetation Structure, Functions and Construction (VegLab), MOE Key Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis & Protection, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
⁴ Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Zhejiang Zhoushan Island Ecosystem Field Observation and Research Station, Institute of Eco-Chongming, Centre for Global Change and Ecological Forecasting, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
⁵ Institute of Eco-Environmental Research, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China
⁶ South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou 510530, China
⁷ Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China
⁸ College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200000, China
⁹ The Conservation of Endangered Wildlife Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu 610081, China
¹⁰ Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
¹¹ Institute of Ecology and State Key Laboratory of Vegetation Structure, Functions and Construction (VegLab), College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
¹² College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
¹³ School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
¹⁴ School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, China

Received:2025-11-25 Accepted:2026-03-06 Online:2026-05-20 Published:2026-07-01
Contact: Chengyun Zhang, Yang Liu
Supported by:
The National Natural Science Foundation of China(32571817);The National Natural Science Foundation of China(32171520);Comprehensive Scientific Survey of Huanglong Nature Protected Area, Project of Guangdong Forestry Bureau: “Comprehensive Scientific Survey of Biodiversity in Nanling National Park”, and Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation(2024A1515240076)

Abstract

Abstract:

Background & Aims: Global biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate. As a widespread and diverse taxonomic group, birds are crucial indicators, and understanding drivers and consequences of their population dynamics is vital for biodiversity conservation. Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM), a non-invasive technique with high spatiotemporal resolution, offers a revolutionary tool for large-scale, long-term avian diversity surveys. Despite the rapid development of PAM globally, its application in China is currently hampered by scattered projects, heterogeneous equipment, and inconsistent methodologies. This has resulted in a “data island” dilemma, significantly hindering data integration and comparability and limiting the utility of these data for biodiversity policy and conservation. This study aims to provide a scientific blueprint and implementation guide for establishing a standardized, networked, and intelligent avian acoustic monitoring system in China.
Method & Results: We systematically reviewed the corresponding urgent needs of PAM in light of the global loss of avian biodiversity. We then compared and analyzed the technical development, network construction, and data-sharing experiences of avian PAM both internationally and domestically, identifying the core challenges China faces due to the lack of unified standards. Drawing on successful international PAM practices, we propose a comprehensive framework of standards suitable for China. This framework covers the entire workflow, from monitoring design and core technical parameters to metadata standards and data processing and analysis.
Perspectives: Finally, we present a series of actionable recommendations and a strategic roadmap for future implementation. These proposals address multiple facets, including top-level design, national network construction, technological innovation, data sharing mechanisms, and essential policy support, charting a clear course for the future of avian acoustic monitoring in the nation.

Key words: passive acoustic monitoring, bird diversity, monitoring standards, data standardization, ecoacoustics

Zezhou Hao, Xiaoli Shen, Xingfeng Si, Yanyan Zhao, Chentao Wei, Fei Wu, Xiaoqing Xu, Pinjia Que, Lu Dong, Fangyuan Hua, Lixun Zhang, Chengyun Zhang, Yang Liu. Standards and recommendations for passive acoustic monitoring of birds in China[J]. Biodiv Sci, 2026, 34(5): 25474.

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网络类型 Network type	项目名称 Project name	所在区域 Region	核心监测目标 Core monitoring objective	标准化与元数据策略 Standardization & metadata strategy
基础设施型 Infrastructural	Australian Acoustic Observatory (A2O)	大洋洲 Oceania	建立大陆尺度的长时序声景基准, 评估生态系统健康 To establish a continental-scale, long-term soundscape baseline for assessing ecosystem health	全流程标准化: 统一采用太阳能传感器, 执行连续录音协议及统一的云端存储工作流 Full-process standardization: Using unified solar-powered sensors, continuous recording protocols, and a unified cloud storage workflow
基础设施型 Infrastructural	Transnational Acoustic Biodiversity Monitoring Network (TABMON)	欧洲 Europe	构建跨越欧洲多国的昆虫、鸟类与蝙蝠自动化监测网络 To build an automated monitoring network for insects, birds, and bats across multiple European countries	跨国协议标准化: 制定适用于不同国家的通用设备部署指南与数据处理工作流 Transnational protocol standardization: Developing common equipment deployment guidelines and data processing workflows applicable to different countries
梯度响应型 Gradient-based	Soundscape Baseline Project	北美洲 North America	监测气候变化背景下的声景物候与声学多样性演变 To monitor the evolution of soundscape phenology and acoustic diversity under climate change	梯度标准化: 沿纬度梯度设置标准样地, 统一记录微生境结构与温度等环境元数据 Gradient standardization: Establishing standardized plots along latitudinal gradients, with unified recording of microhabitat structure and environmental metadata
梯度响应型 Gradient-based	Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems (SAFE) Project	亚洲 Asia	评估土地利用变化(雨林砍伐与油棕种植)对生物多样性的影响 To assess the impact of land-use change (deforestation and oil palm plantation) on biodiversity	实验设计标准化: 采用“原始林-采伐林-人工林”全梯度设计, 严格控制录音时间与频次 Experimental design standardization: Adopting a full-gradient design from old-growth to plantation forests, strictly controlling recording timing and frequency
技术融合型Multi-source data integration	Soundscapes to Landscapes (S2L)	北美洲 North America	结合声学与遥感数据(LiDAR/卫星), 绘制区域生物多样性地图 To map regional biodiversity by integrating acoustic data with remote sensing (LiDAR/satellite)	多源融合标准化: 统一声学采样阵列, 并与遥感影像的空间分辨率进行时空对齐 Multi-source fusion standardization: Unifying acoustic sampling arrays and aligns them spatiotemporally with the spatial resolution of remote sensing imagery

网络类型 Network type	项目名称 Project name	所在区域 Region	核心监测目标 Core monitoring objective	标准化与元数据策略 Standardization & metadata strategy
基础设施型 Infrastructural	Australian Acoustic Observatory (A2O)	大洋洲 Oceania	建立大陆尺度的长时序声景基准, 评估生态系统健康 To establish a continental-scale, long-term soundscape baseline for assessing ecosystem health	全流程标准化: 统一采用太阳能传感器, 执行连续录音协议及统一的云端存储工作流 Full-process standardization: Using unified solar-powered sensors, continuous recording protocols, and a unified cloud storage workflow
基础设施型 Infrastructural	Transnational Acoustic Biodiversity Monitoring Network (TABMON)	欧洲 Europe	构建跨越欧洲多国的昆虫、鸟类与蝙蝠自动化监测网络 To build an automated monitoring network for insects, birds, and bats across multiple European countries	跨国协议标准化: 制定适用于不同国家的通用设备部署指南与数据处理工作流 Transnational protocol standardization: Developing common equipment deployment guidelines and data processing workflows applicable to different countries
梯度响应型 Gradient-based	Soundscape Baseline Project	北美洲 North America	监测气候变化背景下的声景物候与声学多样性演变 To monitor the evolution of soundscape phenology and acoustic diversity under climate change	梯度标准化: 沿纬度梯度设置标准样地, 统一记录微生境结构与温度等环境元数据 Gradient standardization: Establishing standardized plots along latitudinal gradients, with unified recording of microhabitat structure and environmental metadata
梯度响应型 Gradient-based	Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems (SAFE) Project	亚洲 Asia	评估土地利用变化(雨林砍伐与油棕种植)对生物多样性的影响 To assess the impact of land-use change (deforestation and oil palm plantation) on biodiversity	实验设计标准化: 采用“原始林-采伐林-人工林”全梯度设计, 严格控制录音时间与频次 Experimental design standardization: Adopting a full-gradient design from old-growth to plantation forests, strictly controlling recording timing and frequency
技术融合型Multi-source data integration	Soundscapes to Landscapes (S2L)	北美洲 North America	结合声学与遥感数据(LiDAR/卫星), 绘制区域生物多样性地图 To map regional biodiversity by integrating acoustic data with remote sensing (LiDAR/satellite)	多源融合标准化: 统一声学采样阵列, 并与遥感影像的空间分辨率进行时空对齐 Multi-source fusion standardization: Unifying acoustic sampling arrays and aligns them spatiotemporally with the spatial resolution of remote sensing imagery

参数类别 Category	参数 Parameter	推荐标准 Recommended standard	理由与依据 Rationale & basis
设备 Equipment	麦克风类型 Microphone type	全向性 Omnidirectional	捕获来自所有方向的声音, 适用于群落监测 Captures sound from all directions, suitable for community-level monitoring
	麦克风灵敏度 Microphone sensitivity	≥ -40 dB	确保能有效记录远处或微弱的鸟鸣信号 Ensures effective recording of distant or faint birdsong signals
	自身噪声 Equivalent noise level	信噪比 ≥ 65 dB Signal-to-noise ratio ≥ 65 dB	降低设备本身产生的噪声, 提高录音质量 Reduces noise generated by the device itself, improving recording quality
音频设置 Audio settings	文件格式 File format	WAV	完整保留原始声学信息, 是科学分析的标准格式 Fully preserves the original acoustic information; the standard format for scientific analysis
	采样率 Sampling rate	48 kHz	覆盖所有鸟类鸣声频率, 满足AI模型分析要求 Covers the full frequency range of bird vocalizations and meets the requirements for AI model analysis
	位深度 Bit depth	> 16 bit	提供足够的动态范围, 平衡数据质量与存储需求 Provides sufficient dynamic range, balancing data quality with storage requirements
设备布设 Equipment deployment	安装高度 Installation height	1.5-2 m	减少地面反射与灌丛干扰, 便于维护 Reduces ground reflections and interference from undergrowth; facilitates maintenance
设备布设 Equipment deployment	麦克风朝向 Microphone orientation	避开持续噪声源 Pointed away from persistent noise	提高目标信号(鸟鸣)的信噪比 Increases the signal-to-noise ratio of the target signal (birdsong)
录音日程 Recording schedule	采样策略 Sampling strategy	每10 min录1 min, 24 h循环 Record for 1 minute every 10 minutes, on a 24-hour cycle	系统性时间采样, 兼顾数据代表性与资源消耗(例如电源和存储) Provides a systematic temporal sampling that balances data representativeness with resource consumption (e.g., power, storage)

参数类别 Category	参数 Parameter	推荐标准 Recommended standard	理由与依据 Rationale & basis
设备 Equipment	麦克风类型 Microphone type	全向性 Omnidirectional	捕获来自所有方向的声音, 适用于群落监测 Captures sound from all directions, suitable for community-level monitoring
	麦克风灵敏度 Microphone sensitivity	≥ -40 dB	确保能有效记录远处或微弱的鸟鸣信号 Ensures effective recording of distant or faint birdsong signals
	自身噪声 Equivalent noise level	信噪比 ≥ 65 dB Signal-to-noise ratio ≥ 65 dB	降低设备本身产生的噪声, 提高录音质量 Reduces noise generated by the device itself, improving recording quality
音频设置 Audio settings	文件格式 File format	WAV	完整保留原始声学信息, 是科学分析的标准格式 Fully preserves the original acoustic information; the standard format for scientific analysis
	采样率 Sampling rate	48 kHz	覆盖所有鸟类鸣声频率, 满足AI模型分析要求 Covers the full frequency range of bird vocalizations and meets the requirements for AI model analysis
	位深度 Bit depth	> 16 bit	提供足够的动态范围, 平衡数据质量与存储需求 Provides sufficient dynamic range, balancing data quality with storage requirements
设备布设 Equipment deployment	安装高度 Installation height	1.5-2 m	减少地面反射与灌丛干扰, 便于维护 Reduces ground reflections and interference from undergrowth; facilitates maintenance
设备布设 Equipment deployment	麦克风朝向 Microphone orientation	避开持续噪声源 Pointed away from persistent noise	提高目标信号(鸟鸣)的信噪比 Increases the signal-to-noise ratio of the target signal (birdsong)
录音日程 Recording schedule	采样策略 Sampling strategy	每10 min录1 min, 24 h循环 Record for 1 minute every 10 minutes, on a 24-hour cycle	系统性时间采样, 兼顾数据代表性与资源消耗(例如电源和存储) Provides a systematic temporal sampling that balances data representativeness with resource consumption (e.g., power, storage)

Standards and recommendations for passive acoustic monitoring of birds in China

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