Aims: Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding technology offers a novel approach for assessing soil arthropod diversity. This study aimed to compare the performance of three eDNA sampling methods for detecting soil arthropods. 

Methods: Soil samples were collected from eight crop fields. Three eDNA sampling methods were employed: direct soil extraction (SOL), air filtration (AIR), and soil water filtration (WAT). Arthropod community composition was analyzed using high-throughput sequencing. 

Results: Species richness was significantly higher in WAT than in SOL and AIR (P < 0.05), with no significant difference between SOL and AIR. The three methods also differed considerably in beta diversity. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) revealed highly significant differences in soil arthropod community structures among the three sampling methods (R² = 0.2816, P = 0.001), indicating that the sampling method explained 28.16% of the total variation in community composition. Principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) further showed that samples from the three methods formed three distinct clusters along the ordination plot. SOL detected the highest number of operational taxonomic unit (OTUs; 3,314), followed by AIR (1,023) and WAT (871). At the family level, the relative abundance of soil-dwelling groups such as Isotomidae detected by the SOL was higher, but the differences among treatments were not significant (P > 0.05). WAT exhibited the highest relative abundance of Chironomidae and AIR demonstrated superior detection efficiency for Scarabaeidae. Among natural enemy groups, Staphylinidae and Empididae were detected by all three methods. Network analysis revealed dense OTU clusters around SOL nodes in SOL–AIR and SOL–WAT comparisons, while in the AIR–WAT comparison, high-abundance OTUs were largely method-specific. Rank occurrence curves indicated that SOL detected the most OTUs (169) and showed the most even distribution, followed by WAT (113) and AIR (83), with AIR dominated by a few abundant OTUs. 

Conclusion: The distribution of eDNA in the solid, liquid, and gas phases of soil is closely related to the ecological niche and behavioral types of arthropods, exhibiting heterogeneous distribution. SOL offers stable and broad-spectrum detection of soil-dwelling groups and various natural enemy taxa. AIR shows advantages in detecting groups such as Diptera and Scarabaeidae. WAT is particularly effective in enriching taxa like Chironomidae that prefer moist environments. For biodiversity assessment of farmland soil, the SOL is recommended as the foundation. If the focus is on specific taxa such as Diptera or Coleoptera, the AIR can be added as a supplement to SOL. If the study involves taxa that prefer moist environments, such as Chironomidae, the WAT should be additionally incorporated. This study provides a scientific basis for understanding the spatial distribution of eDNA in soil ecosystems and for the optimizing methods for monitoring soil arthropod diversity in agricultural fields.

Aims: Understanding temporal dynamics of arthropod communities in farmland is an important basis for clarifying natural enemy–pest interactions and evaluating the potential for natural pest control. In crop rotation systems, seasonal crop succession is often accompanied by changes in vegetation structure, resource availability, microhabitat conditions, and meteorological background, all of which may influence arthropod community composition and the relative dominance of different functional taxa. However, continuous multi-year monitoring data for arthropod communities in sorghum-wheat rotation fields remains limited. In this study, we used DNA metabarcoding to investigate arthropod community dynamics in a long-term fixed monitoring field under sorghum-wheat rotation in Suqian, Jiangsu Province, China, from 2019 to 2023. Specifically, we aimed to describe temporal variation in arthropod community composition and diversity across years, seasons, and crop stages, and to preliminarily explore the associations between major arthropod taxa and meteorological factors. 

Methods: Arthropods were collected using a Malaise trap from a fixed monitoring site located in a sorghum-wheat rotation field in Siyang County, Suqian, Jiangsu Province. Sorghum was cultivated from June to October, and winter wheat was cultivated from November to May of the following year. A total of 64 arthropod samples were collected during the five-year monitoring period. DNA was extracted from each sample, and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COI) was amplified and sequenced for metabarcoding analysis. Operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were clustered at 97% sequence similarity and taxonomically annotated using the BOLD database. Because of limitations in public reference databases and potential uncertainties in species-level assignment, subsequent analyses focused mainly on order- and family-level taxonomic composition rather than species-level identification. Arthropod community composition was summarized by year, season, and crop stage. Alpha diversity was estimated using the Shannon-Wiener diversity index based on the OTU composition matrix. Beta diversity was evaluated using Bray-Curtis dissimilarity followed by principal coordinates analysis (PCoA), and group differences were tested using analysis of similarities (ANOSIM). Monthly meteorological variables, including precipitation, temperature-related indices, and sunshine duration, were matched with arthropod community data. Spearman rank correlation analysis was used to explore associations between environmental factors and the relative abundance of major arthropod taxa. In addition, mixed-effects models were used to evaluate the effects of crop type, season, year, and their interactions on community relative abundance patterns. 

Results: Diptera was the dominant arthropod order throughout the monitoring period, indicating its consistently high relative abundance in this field. At the family level, Syrphidae and Coccinellidae were identified as important natural enemy taxa, although their relative abundance varied among years and seasons. OTU-level alpha diversity did not differ significantly among years (P > 0.05), suggesting relatively stable interannual diversity at the monitored site. In contrast, alpha diversity differed significantly among seasons (P < 0.05), with a relatively higher Shannon-Wiener diversity index in summer. Alpha diversity was positively correlated with temperature-related variables (P < 0.01). Beta diversity analysis based on Bray-Curtis dissimilarity showed clear differences in community composition between the sorghum and wheat seasons, and ANOSIM confirmed that this difference was statistically significant (P < 0.001). Meteorological factors were associated with variation in the relative abundance of several major taxa. The relative abundance of Syrphidae was positively correlated with sunshine duration (P < 0.05), but negatively correlated with precipitation and temperature-related variables (P < 0.01). The relative abundance of Coccinellidae showed more evident seasonal fluctuations. The mixed-effects model showed that, after including year as a random effect, the single main effects of crop type and season were not significant. However, different crop-season combinations exhibited divergent temporal trends from 2019 to 2023, suggesting that arthropod community dynamics at this site may be jointly influenced by crop succession, seasonal transitions, and interannual environmental fluctuations. 

Conclusion: This study provides a five-year time-series dataset describing arthropod community composition, OTU-level diversity, and the relative abundance dynamics of major natural enemy taxa in a sorghum-wheat rotation field in Suqian, Jiangsu Province. The results suggest that arthropod community structure and natural enemy taxa in this monitored field were associated with crop-season transitions and meteorological variation. However, this study was conducted at a single fixed monitoring site without spatial replication or control fields. In addition, relative abundance derived from DNA metabarcoding may be affected by primer bias, DNA extraction efficiency, biomass differences, mitochondrial copy number variation, and reference database completeness, and therefore should not be interpreted as equivalent to individual abundance obtained from traditional morphological surveys. Thus, the findings should be regarded as field-specific temporal patterns rather than general rules for all sorghum-wheat rotation systems. Future studies should incorporate replicated monitoring across multiple sites, morphological validation, pest population data, functional group classification, and finer-resolution environmental measurements to further clarify the mechanisms shaping arthropod communities in crop rotation farmlands.

Aims: This study aims to elucidate the variation in functional traits of soil Collembola along an elevation gradient in Populus davidiana and Betula platyphylla mixed forests on Guandi Mountains, as well as the effects of environmental factors on these functional traits. 

Method: We selected soil Collembola from the poplar-birch forest ecosystem of Guandi Mountains as the research subject. Four elevation gradients were set at 200 m intervals within the elevation range of 1600–2200 m, with three replicates per gradient, yielding a total of 12 sampling plots. Soil Collembola were collected using the dry funnel method. We identified and counted taxonomic groups, measured Collembola functional traits, and determined soil physicochemical properties to explore Collembola community characteristics and the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of their functional traits along the elevation gradient. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was applied to evaluate how soil environmental factors affect Collembola functional traits. 

Results: Soil Collembola abundance gradually decreased with rising elevation and exhibited an obvious epigeal aggregation pattern. Functional diversity indices differed significantly across elevations and seasons (P < 0.05). In summer, functional richness showed an overall increasing trend, whereas functional evenness, functional dispersion and Rao’s quadratic entropy (Rao’s Q) all decreased first and then increased. The community-weighted mean (CWM) of Collembola body length differed significantly among vertical soil layers (P < 0.05). The CWM values of body length, pigmentation, furca and scales showed significant seasonal dynamics (P < 0.05). Redundancy analysis demonstrated that soil temperature, pH and bulk density were significantly and positively correlated with Collembola body length, pigmentation, furca and ocelli. 

Conclusion: This study clarifies the spatiotemporal distribution patterns and key environmental drivers of functional traits of soil Collembola on Guandi Mountains, and provides a theoretical basis for the conservation of soil fauna diversity in the poplar-birch forest ecosystem of Guandi Mountains.

Aims: Nematodes are a central component of the soil micro-food web, play a key role in maintaining soil biodiversity and regulating a series of ecological processes such as nutrient cycling and transformation. Although numerous studies have investigated the effects of nitrogen addition on soil fauna, a systematic understanding of how nematode communities in the litter layer and surface soil respond to nitrogen enrichment in semi-arid grassland ecosystems remains lacking. 

Methods: In this study, we conducted a field experiment in a temperate semi-arid typical steppe with four N addition levels (0, 25, 50, and 100 kg N∙ha^–1∙yr^–1), and examined the responses of nematode community diversity and ecological indices in both litter and surface soil layers to increasing nitrogen input. 

Results: (1) Compared with the surface soil nematode community, the nematode community in the litter layer was more sensitive to N addition, as evidenced by significant shifts in community structure: the dominant functional group shifted from free-living cp2 nematodes to cp1 nematodes. (2) Nitrogen addition and inter-annual climate variation had a significant interactive effect on nematode communities, and this effect varied among habitats. In wet years, nitrogen addition did not significantly affect nematode diversity or ecological indices in either habitat (i.e., the litter layer and surface soil). In contrast, high-level nitrogen addition during dry years significantly altered the community structure and ecological functions of nematodes in the litter layer. (3) In the litter layer, nematode community composition was significantly influenced by the aridity index, litter C/N ratio, and litter nitrogen content. In the surface soil, nematode community composition was significantly shaped by the aridity index, soil water content, and aboveground plant biomass. 

Conclusion: These findings not only provide new insights into the mechanisms driving the dynamic succession of grassland nematode communities under nitrogen deposition, but also highlight the critical role of the litter layer in maintaining the stability of belowground biotic communities.

Aims: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of fire disturbance on soil microbial communities in Pinus densata forests and to characterize their recovery trajectories across different post-fire recovery stages. 

Methods: Soil microbial communities in unburned plots and fire-affected plots at 5 and 14 years post-fire in Pinus densata forests were investigated using Illumina MiSeq high-throughput sequencing combined with bioinformatic analyses. 

Results: (1) By 14 years post-fire, several soil nutrient indices had recovered to, and in some cases exceeded, the levels of the unburned plots. In the 0–5 cm layer, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, nitrate nitrogen, and pH increased significantly (P < 0.05), while in the 5–10 cm layer, significant increases were observed only in soil organic matter, total phosphorus, and nitrate nitrogen (P < 0.05). (2) In the 0–5 cm soil layer, the Shannon index of bacterial communities at 5 and 14 years post-fire was significantly higher than that in the unburned plots (P < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed among the different post-fire recovery stages for bacteria in the 5–10 cm layer or for fungi in either soil layer (P > 0.05). (3) In both 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm soil layers, bacterial communities were dominated by Actinobacteriota, Proteobacteria, and Acidobacteriota, while fungal communities were primarily composed of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. By 14 years post-fire bacterial absolute abundance exceeded that in unburned plots, whereas fungal absolute abundance remained lower. (4) Symbiotrophic and saprotrophic fungi exhibited differentiated recovery trends across soil layers, whereas the relative abundance of multitrophic fungi showed an initial increase followed by a decrease. (5) Post-fire recovery time significantly affected the community structures of both soil bacteria and fungi in the 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm layers (P < 0.05), with pH, organic matter, and nitrogen and phosphorus availability closely associated with microbial community differentiation. 

Conclusion: Long-term recovery following fire disturbance led to significant changes in soil organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, pH, and nitrate nitrogen, which indirectly influenced the Shannon index of bacterial communities in the 0–5 cm layer and the overall microbial community structure in both soil layers. Multitrophic fungi, capable of utilizing multiple carbon sources simultaneously, gained a competitive advantage for resources after fire disturbance, resulting in a relative increase in abundance in the short term. As recovery time increases, the ecosystem gradually stabilizes, allowing monotrophic fungi to reoccupy their ecological niches. Because environmental factors were highly synchronized between the two soil layers, microbial community structure did not differ significantly along the vertical (depth) gradient within any given recovery stage.

Aims: Cathaya argyrophylla is the only extant species of the genus Cathaya in the family Pinaceae and has great evolutionary significance. As a typical ectomycorrhizal-dependent tree species, its ex situ conservation and artificial propagation are often constrained by low seedling survival and slow population regeneration. These limitations may be associated with disturbances to the rhizosphere microecosystem under artificial cultivation. This study aimed to reveal the effects of artificial cultivation on the soil microecology of C. argyrophylla and to provide a scientific basis for improving conservation strategies. 

Methods: Using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and ITS regions, we characterized soil microbial communities and evaluated differences in soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, community assembly processes, co-occurrence network characteristics, and functional potential between C. argyrophylla plantations and natural forests. 

Results: Compared with natural forests, plantation soils had significantly higher available phosphorus, available potassium, nitrate nitrogen, and pH, but lower total carbon and soil organic matter contents. Bacterial α diversity was significantly higher in plantation soils, whereas the connectivity and stability of microbial co-occurrence networks markedly decreased. Community assembly shifted from deterministic selection-dominated processes in natural forests to increased stochastic processes in plantations. In terms of taxonomic composition, natural forests were enriched with acid-tolerant and symbiotic taxa such as Acidothermus and Oidiodendron, whereas plantations were dominated by copiotrophic taxa such as Bacillus and Trichoderma. 

Conclusion: Current plantation management practices may enhance soil nutrient availability and bacterial diversity in the short term, but they are also associated with fragmented microbial network structures, loss of key symbiotic taxa, and degradation of functional potential. These changes may constrain the long-term recovery and self-maintenance of C. argyrophylla populations by weakening mycorrhizal nutrient acquisition and the buffering capacity of soil ecosystems. Therefore, ex situ conservation of C. argyrophylla should shift from a sole focus on plant survival to the maintenance of soil microecological network integrity. Management practices such as reducing chemical fertilizer inputs, promoting litter return, maintaining moderately acidic soil conditions, and introducing indigenous keystone symbiotic taxa may help reconstruct a functionally stable and mutualism-dominated rhizosphere interaction system, thereby providing microecological support for the sustainable conservation of C. argyrophylla and other mycorrhizal-dependent rare species.

Aims: Biodiversity loss and functional degradation caused by tropical land use change have attracted widespread attention. However, a systematic understanding of the response mechanisms, network topological adaptation strategies, and cross-trophic linkage dynamics of belowground multi-trophic soil micro-food webs (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and nematodes) remains lacking. This study aimed to reveal the response patterns of each trophic level in belowground soil micro-food webs to intensive land use, their network structural reorganization strategies, and the underlying environmental driving mechanisms. 

Methods: In Xishuangbanna, four typical land use types representing an increasing gradient of disturbance (primary forest, secondary forest, open habitat, and rubber plantation) were selected. Based on 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technologies, community structures across four trophic levels were investigated, and a systemic study was conducted combining co-occurrence network analysis (evaluating complexity and modularity) with global Mantel tests. 

Results: (1) The micro-food web exhibited significant asynchronous responses, where bacterial diversity remained high in rubber plantations, whereas the diversity of higher-trophic protozoa decreased significantly with intensifying disturbance, and although nematode diversity remained stable, the omnivorous genus Oxydirus was not detected in secondary forest and rubber plantations. (2) Network reorganization strategies diverged, with lower trophic levels (bacteria and fungi) maintaining stability under intensifying disturbance by increasing modularity, whereas soil protozoa networks were markedly simplified (protozoan connections lost nearly 80%), and the nematode network in rubber plantations densified with connections becoming highly concentrated on a few nodes. (3) Environmental driving mechanisms underwent severe decoupling, where micro-food web assembly in primary forests was dominated by soil physical structure (particle size distribution and porosity), but with the degradation of soil physical conditions in rubber plantations (clay loss and total porosity decline), the assembly of higher-trophic communities became significantly decoupled from environmental factors, shifting the dominant driving force from deterministic environmental filtering to ecological drift. 

Conclusion: This study emphasizes that the degradation of soil physical microhabitats is the key factor triggering the simplification of higher-trophic networks, indicates the limitations of relying solely on microorganisms to assess ecosystem health, and provides a scientific basis for ecological restoration and multi-trophic biodiversity conservation in tropical plantations.

Background & Aims: Global warming caused by sharp increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) emissions has become a major concern for both international and scientific communities. Understanding how soil fauna mediate the carbon and nitrogen processes to drive greenhouse gas emissions is a frontier scientific issue in global climate change research. As a key arthropod group with extremely high species diversity globally (over 12,000 species), millipedes can directly or indirectly regulate soil carbon and nitrogen cycle processes and the associated emissions of greenhouse gases (i.e., CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) through their multiple roles as consumers, decomposers, predators, and soil engineers. At present, research on the mechanism by which soil fauna affect greenhouse gas emissions mainly focuses on groups such as earthworms and termites, while studies on millipedes regulating soil greenhouse gas emissions are extremely scarce. Most of them are microscopic or control experiments conducted in the past 20 years on dozens of model species from 25 families and 34 genera under 5 orders. This paper systematically reviews relevant domestic and international research findings about the effects of millipedes on soil carbon and nitrogen cycling as well as the emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O. We also preliminarily summarize the underlying processes and mechanisms. 

Review Results: (1) Millipedes directly promoted CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emissions by stimulating their own respiration, gut enzyme activities, and functional microbial activities during litter feeding and decomposition; simultaneously, they indirectly affected greenhouse gas emissions through litter fragmentation and the mediation of microbial and soil faunal activities via fecal pellets. (2) Millipedes regulated soil greenhouse gas production by affecting soil carbon and nitrogen mineralization and microbial respiration processes through secretion, digestion, and excretion. (3) By mediating changes in soil functional microorganisms, functional enzymes, and aerobic-anaerobic conditions, millipedes influenced soil nitrification, denitrification, oxidation, and reduction processes, thereby regulating CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emissions. (4) Through interactions with plant roots, soil, microorganisms, and other arthropods, millipede activities mediated changes in plants and soil environment, thereby indirectly driving soil greenhouse gas emissions by influencing key processes such as carbon and nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, denitrification, methane production and oxidation. 

Conclusion: Future research should focus on the mechanism analysis based on in situ field control and microcosmic experiments, exploring the mechanisms by which different feeding-habit millipedes affect key processes in soil carbon and nitrogen, as well as carbon and nitrogen fixation and greenhouse gas emissions. It is also essential to scientifically evaluate the promoting or inhibiting effects of millipede activities on the releases of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O.

Aims: The Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon National Nature Reserve, characterized by its unique topographic and climatic conditions, harbors the world’s most complete montane vertical vegetation spectrum and supports highly diverse, distinctive, and well-developed vegetation. Previous studies in the reserve have mainly focused on forest and primary vegetation at low and middle elevations, whereas high elevation shrublands, herbaceous vegetation, and secondary vegetation have received much less attention. As a consequence, existing vegetation surveys and classification systems have not fully reflected the vegetation diversity of the region. This study aims to compile a more complete vegetation classification system for the reserve and to clarify its newly recorded alliances. 

Methods: Based on surveys of 493 stands, 590 plots, and 16,648 survey points conducted within the reserve, together with previous literature, and following the principles of A revised scheme of vegetation classification system of China, we compiled a vegetation classification system for the reserve. 

Results: The vegetation of the reserve was classified into 5 vegetation formation groups, 20 vegetation formations, 34 vegetation subformations, and 162 alliances. Compared with previous studies, 75 alliances were newly recorded (27 for forest types, 25 for shrubland types, 20 for herbaceous vegetation types, and 3 for swamp and aquatic vegetation types). Representative newly recorded types include Castanopsis indica forest, Juniperus squamata forest, Quercus semecarpifolia forest, Ficus glaberrima forest, Aster motuoensis shrubland, evergreen broadleaf forest dominated by Lithocarpus species, alpine cold-temperate evergreen broadleaf shrubland dominated by Rhododendron species and forb alpine meadow grassland, secondary vegetation types such as Exbucklandia populnea forest and Beilschmiedia robusta forest. 

Conclusions: This study further develops the vegetation classification system of the reserve, resulting in a more complete classification scheme, including more fully documented forest vegetation as well as previously underrepresented shrublands and herbaceous vegetation at high elevations, and secondary vegetation. Together with the newly recorded alliance types, this provides a more complete account of the abundance of vegetation diversity as well as the baseline data on vegetation types in the reserve, offering a scientific basis for future vegetation research, biodiversity conservation and ecological protection in the region.

Aims: Mid-montane evergreen broadleaf forests constitute an important component of subtropical forest ecosystems in China, yet they remain scientifically understudied. Strikingly, the mid-montane zone of Jiulongshan National Nature Reserve contains a large and exceptionally well-preserved primary evergreen broadleaf forest that is highly representative of eastern subtropical China. 

Methods: Following the protocols of the Chinese Forest Biodiversity Monitoring Network (CForBio), we established a 30-ha forest dynamics plot in this region and conducted the first full census of all woody stems with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 1 cm. Based on these data, we analyzed species composition, community structure, vegetation formations, and habitat differentiation. 

Results: A total of 179,533 woody individuals were recorded in the plot, belonging to 201 species, 96 genera, and 49 families. Ericaceae, Theaceae, and Fagaceae were the dominant families. Twenty-one species had importance values ≥ 1%, with Rhododendron simiarum, Schima superba, and R. latoucheae as the top three dominant species. The importance values of evergreen broadleaf, deciduous broadleaf, and coniferous species were 69.5%, 21.8%, and 8.8%, respectively. Vegetation formations were dominated by evergreen broadleaf forest and showed a mosaic distribution with other vegetation types along topographic gradients, indicating stronger transitional characteristics than those of lower-elevation subtropical forests. The mean DBH of all woody individuals was 6.8 cm, and the DBH-class distribution showed a typical inverse J-shape, indicating good regeneration potential. Vertical stratification was pronounced, with the canopy layer dominated by S. superba, Pinus taiwanensis, Cyclobalanopsis multinervis, and C. stewardiana, and the sub-canopy and shrub layers dominated by Ericaceae species, especially R. simiarum and R. latoucheae, reflecting a vertical stratification pattern typical of mid-montane forests. Floristic composition exhibited a clear transitional pattern, with tropical elements dominating at the family level (51.0%) and temperate elements dominating at the genus level (57.3%). Rare species accounted for 51.2% of all species. Multivariate regression tree analysis showed that the plot could be classified into five habitat types. Total phosphorus, available sodium, aspect, and slope were identified as the key environmental factors distinguishing habitat types. Rare species were proportionally more concentrated in the transitional habitat characterized by high phosphorus and steep slopes. 

Conclusion: The Jiulongshan 30-ha forest dynamics plot well reflects the characteristics of primary montane evergreen broadleaf forest in the mid-subtropics, including high species richness, complex community composition and pronounced vegetation differentiation. This plot provides baseline data and a research platform for long-term monitoring, cross-regional comparison, and related ecological studies.

Aims: Plant functional traits reflect species’ survival strategies and patterns of resource allocation under varying environmental conditions. Understanding the elevational patterns of functional traits is crucial for elucidating how plants adapt to mountainous environments. However, comparative studies examining how the functional traits of native and invasive herbaceous plants respond to different elevations remain limited. 

Methods: This study examined the elevational patterns of functional traits of native and invasive herbaceous plants and their climatic drives, based on 49 plots (1 m × 1 m) of herbaceous sampled along a 250–1,050 m elevational gradient at 100 m intervals in the Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan. 

Results: The results showed that across the entire elevation range, invasive herbaceous plants had significantly higher plant height (P < 0.001), leaf width (P < 0.001), and leaf nitrogen content (P = 0.032), but significantly lower leaf length (P = 0.003) and leaf dry weight (P = 0.005) than native herbaceous plants. At low elevations (200–500 m), invasive herbaceous plants were taller than native herbaceous plants (P < 0.001). At middle elevations (500–800 m), invasive herbaceous plants exhibited greater plant height (P = 0.012) and leaf width (P = 0.008) compared to native herbaceous plants, while their leaf length was significantly lower (P = 0.032). At high elevations (800–1,100 m), invasive herbaceous plants showed significantly higher leaf width (P = 0.019) and leaf nitrogen content (P = 0.030) than native herbaceous plants, but lower leaf length (P = 0.011), leaf dry weight (P = 0.006), and leaf fresh weight (P = 0.033) than natives. No significant differences were observed in other traits. In invasive herbaceous plants, plant height (P < 0.001), leaf length (P < 0.001), leaf area (P = 0.021), and leaf dry weight (P = 0.037) were significantly positively correlated with mean annual temperature and negatively with precipitation, whereas leaf nitrogen content exhibited an opposite pattern. Native herbaceous plants, however, only showed significant correlations between leaf width and climatic factors. 

Conclusion: This study suggests that invasive herbaceous plants adopt a “resource-acquisitive” strategy at low elevations (characterized by greater height, larger leaf width, and higher leaf nitrogen content), further expanding their trait advantages at middle elevations (increasing chlorophyll content and leaf moisture). At high elevations, they select for cold-tolerant species with high leaf nitrogen through species turnover. Variance partitioning results revealed that this ecological strategy shift is primarily driven by species turnover, which filters out species with varying functional trait combinations at different elevations. In contrast, native herbaceous plants exhibit a more conservative functional trait strategies, with their elevational variation in functional traits also primarily dominated by species turnover. Results recommended to prioritize invasive species monitoring and control at low and middle elevation areas, while also being aware of the potential risk of invasive herbaceous plants maintaining their competitiveness at high elevations through species turnover.

Aims: The tribe Triticeae (Poaceae) is a vital repository of wild crop relatives and forage germplasm, with irreplaceable value in agriculture, pastoralism, and ecological conservation. China boasts rich diversity of wild Triticeae taxa. However, the 5 genera and 12 species of Triticeae plants listed in the National Key Protected Wild Plants List (2021) generally suffer from insufficient basic data and difficulties in species identification, which severely restrict their conservation and utilization. This study aims to improve the basic dataset of these nationally protected Triticeae species and provide scientific support for their conservation and sustainable utilization. 

Methods: This study integrated curated herbarium specimen reviews and systematic field surveys to comprehensively analyze key traits of the target taxa, including morphological diagnostic features, geographical distribution, chromosome karyotype, and subgenomic composition. Meanwhile, molecular datasets were constructed to support accurate species identification based on subgenomic signatures and DNA sequence polymorphisms. The threatened categories of each species was re-assessed in accordance with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Categories and Criteria, combined with quantitative data on population size, threat severity, and distribution range. 

Results: Our study clarified the morphological profiles and distribution characteristics of the 12 national key protected wild plants of the Triticeae. We obtained chromosome numbers and karyotypes for 10 species across 4 genera through cytological experiments. We successfully identified the subgenomic composition of 10 species via alignment coverage analysis of whole-genome resequencing data. Our k-mer-based phylogenetic analysis proved effective for molecular identification, while plastid genome “super-barcodes” showed poor resolution between different subgenomes. Studies on reproductive and dispersal capacity showed that species with large and heavy seeds have weak dispersal ability, narrow distribution ranges, and higher extinction risk. After reassessment according to IUCN criteria, the threat status of 10 species was upgraded (e.g. Agropyron mongolicum), 1 was downgraded (Psathyrostachys huashanica), and 1 remained unchanged (Elymus villifer), among which Hordeum innermongolicum was upgraded to Critically Endangered (CR) and was suspected to be extinct in the wild; habitat degradation and fragmentation caused by overgrazing were identified as the main threat factors. We finally proposed conservation recommendations, including implementing differentiated in situ protection management for each species, strengthening systematic collection and preservation of germplasm resources, and establishing a dynamic assessment and update mechanism for species in the National Key Protected Wild Plants List (2021). 

Conclusion: Through the integration of multidisciplinary data, this study clarified the taxonomic basis of national key protected wild plants of the Triticeae, revealed the intrinsic relationship between species adaptability and distribution patterns, and assessed their actual threatened status. These results provide core scientific evidence for formulating evidence-based conservation actions. Facing the dual demands of agricultural sustainable development and biodiversity conservation, the research, conservation, and rational utilization of this important wild genetic resource bank require sustained scientific investment and cross-sectoral collaborative management.

Aims: The genus Triplophysa is a key component of the fish fauna of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its adjacent regions. Traditional morphological classification and molecular maker-based methods encounter considerable challenges attributable to convergent evolution, phenotypic plasticity, and other limiting factors, thereby posing substantial obstacles to precise species delimitation. This study systematically compared the application efficacy of phylogenetic approaches and machine learning techniques based on the mitochondrial cytochrome b (Cyt b) gene in the molecular identification of seven Triplophysa species, aiming to establish a reliable technical system for species delimitation of this genus and lay a methodological foundation for subsequent biodiversity investigation and resource management of Triplophysa fishes. 

Methods: In this study, we integrated 395 newly generated Cyt b gene sequences (experimentally obtained) and 247 sequences retrieved from the NCBI database, constructing a comprehensive dataset comprising 642 sequences across seven Triplophysa species. We systematically compared the identification efficacy of phylogenetic methods (NJ/ML/BI trees, GMYC/bPTP delimitation, K2P genetic distance) with machine learning approaches (BLOG and WEKA platform classifiers including SMO, J48, JRip and Naïve Bayes). 

Results: The Cyt b gene sequences exhibited substantial genetic variation, with a haplotype diversity (H_d) of 0.975 ± 0.003 and a nucleotide diversity (π) of 0.107 ± 0.007, as well as a significant A + T base bias (56.50%). These characteristics fully fulfilled the core requirement of genetic polymorphism for molecular identification markers. Due to the interference of recent divergence time, interspecific gene flow, and hybridization events among closely related species, phylogenetic approaches and species delimitation models showed limited performance in delimiting closely related species, only effectively distinguishing 5 out of the 7 studied species, accounting for 62.03% of the haplotypes. In contrast, machine learning techniques demonstrated superior overall performance: the SMO classifier achieved 100.00% accuracy in species identification, the classification accuracies of J48, JRip, and Naïve Bayes classifiers all exceeded 98.00%; the BLOG algorithm yielded a correct classification rate of 96.23% on the test set. Furthermore, these machine learning methods could identify species-specific diagnostic sites and generate interpretable classification rules. 

Conclusion: This study demonstrates that machine learning methods, characterized by high accuracy and efficiency, can serve as reliable auxiliary tools for the accurate identification of the seven Triplophysa species examined. These methods provide technical support for the biodiversity conservation and resource assessment of these species, and simultaneously offer new perspectives and technical references for the molecular identification of other fish groups facing morphological discrimination challenges.

Aims: Taking the tributaries of the Qingyi River as the study site and using macroinvertebrates as indicator species, this study aims to investigate: (1) the extent of spatiotemporal beta diversity in this area and which components are dominant in beta diversity; (2) the primary environmental factors influencing spatiotemporal beta diversity; and (3) which species and sites are key species and key sites. 

Methods: Four surveys of biological and environmental factors were conducted in August (summer) 2023, May (spring) 2024, September (autumn) 2024, and April (spring) 2025 at 16 sampling sites across five tributaries—Qingxi, Zhuxi, Machuan, Gufeng and Zhouhan rivers. Using abundance-based spatial beta diversity index (B_total) and temporal beta diversity index (TBI), methods such as Mantel test and variance partitioning were applied to explore the spatiotemporal beta diversity of macroinvertebrate communities and their environmental drivers. 

Results: (1) The average B_total was 0.694, with turnover being the dominant factor (accounting for 55.8%). Across the entire study period (summer 2023–spring 2025), TBI did not reach statistical significance overall, although a significant increase in species abundance was observed at a single site (S8). In the sub-period from spring 2024 to autumn 2024, species abundance increased, and TBI reached a significant level overall. In the other two sub-periods (summer 2023–spring 2024 and autumn 2024–spring 2025), the overall change in TBI did not reach a significant level. (2) B_total was primarily positively correlated with differences in substrate, water depth and total phosphorus. Environmental factors collectively explained 19.0% of the variation in B_total, with substrate, spatial, and water environment exhibiting relatively high explanatory power. Environmental factors collectively explained 5.9% of the variation in the turnover component (R_epl) and 5.1% of the variation in the nested component (Ab_diff), with substrate and water environment again exhibiting relatively high explanatory power. (3) Environmental factors collectively explained 21.8% of the variation in TBI, primarily due to substrate, water environment, and their combined explanatory power. Environmental factors collectively explained 33.4% of the variation in beta diversity loss or species abundance loss (TBI_B), with the water environment exhibiting a high explanatory power. Environmental factors collectively explained 20.4% of the variation in beta diversity gain or species abundance gain (TBI_C), with substrate and water environment exhibiting high explanatory power. (4) Species with high species abundance, such as those in the families Bithyniidae, Elmidae, Palaemonidae, Viviparidae, and Lymnaeidae, were key species influencing the spatiotemporal variation of regional macroinvertebrate communities. Sites in the lower reaches of tributaries such as S8 and S16, where human activity was frequent, the substrate was relatively homogeneous and species abundance was relatively low, were key locations influencing the spatiotemporal variation of the regional community. 

Conclusion: The composition of macroinvertebrate communities in the tributaries of the Qingyi River basin exhibits significant spatial variation, with turnover being the dominant factor. Over the three-year period, there was a slight increase in temporal beta diversity index at all sampling sites, with the increase at S8 reaching statistical significance. However, the overall regional trend did not reach statistical significance. Substrate and water environment are the primary factors influencing the spatiotemporal variation in regional community composition. Species with high abundance are the key species influencing the spatiotemporal variation in regional communities. Sampling sites in the lower reaches of tributaries are the key locations influencing community spatiotemporal variation. The findings of this study can provide data support for the conservation of macroinvertebrate species diversity in regional rivers and also offer a theoretical reference for other similar regions.

Aims: Headwater streams are important habitats for maintaining regional freshwater biodiversity, yet aquatic insect diversity in mountainous headwater streams and its responses to environmental factors remain insufficiently understood. This study aimed to characterize the community composition and diversity of aquatic insects along an altitudinal gradient in Jinzhai Tianma National Nature Reserve and to identify the major environmental factors associated with these patterns. 

Methods: From 2024 to 2025, aquatic insect communities were systematically surveyed at 10 sampling sites along an altitudinal gradient in Jinzhai Tianma National Nature Reserve. Community diversity was evaluated using species richness, Berger-Parker dominance index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Margalef richness index, Simpson diversity index, and Pielou evenness index. Differences in community structure among altitudinal zones were assessed using analysis of variance and non-metric multidimensional scaling. Redundancy analysis was used to identify key environmental factors affecting community composition, and generalized linear models were applied to evaluate the responses of diversity indices to environmental factors. 

Results: A total of 10,592 aquatic insect individuals were collected, representing 119 taxonomic units, 45 families, and 8 orders. Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Diptera, and Odonata were the dominant groups. Aquatic insect community structure differed significantly among altitudinal zones. Species richness, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, and Margalef richness index were higher in low-altitude (400–600 m) and mid-altitude (600–800 m) streams than in high-altitude streams (800–1,000 m). Redundancy analysis showed that altitude, water temperature, and the permanganate index were the key environmental factors associated with community structure. Generalized linear models further indicated that altitude and water temperature were the main factors influencing community diversity, while dissolved oxygen, total nitrogen, and water depth also played important roles. 

Conclusion: Altitudinal gradients significantly affected the composition and diversity patterns of aquatic insect communities in headwater streams by regulating thermal and hydrochemical conditions. These findings enrich baseline knowledge of aquatic insect diversity in headwater streams of the Dabie Mountains and provide scientific support for regional stream conservation, biodiversity monitoring, and management of nature reserves.

Aims: Ancient trees serve as vital carriers of natural environmental evolution and human history, playing a crucial role in maintaining biocultural diversity. However, how the urban-rural dual structure differentially shapes the retention mechanisms of ancient trees under rapid urbanization remains poorly understood. 

Methods: Focusing on Chongqing, a core distribution area of endemic seed plant genera in China, this study utilized occurrence data of 29,104 ancient trees and 18 environmental variables to comparatively analyze the spatial distribution patterns and driving mechanisms of ancient trees across urban and rural scales, by integrating spatial autocorrelation analysis, an interpretable XGBoost-SHAP machine learning approach, and the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model. 

Results: (1) The ancient trees in Chongqing comprised 304 species, exhibiting a coexistence of a few dominant species and a high proportion of rare species (38.8% of species with < 3 individuals), with significant tropical-temperate transitional floristic characteristics. Urban and rural compositions differed significantly, with urban areas dominated by ornamental species and rural areas by zonal relict species. (2) The spatial distribution showed significant clustering, with Southeast and Northeast Chongqing forming composite hotspots of high diversity and rarity. (3) The retention mechanisms differed markedly between urban and rural areas: rural diversity is primarily driven by natural habitat filtering, exhibiting complex nonlinear threshold effects (e.g., land surface temperature < 21.79℃ favored retention), with micro-environmental factors significantly explaining the residual variance; conversely, urban distribution was predominantly shaped by socio-cultural factors. Historical parks and cultural heritage sites served as core spatial carriers (distance to urban parks contributed 43.2%), and different tree species showed specific responses to anthropogenic factors. 

Conclusion: This study reveals the dual retention mechanism of “natural filtering in rural areas and humanistic shaping in urban areas”, and constructs a three-dimensional precision conservation strategy framework integrating “urban-rural gradient, rarity level, and tree species type”. This provides a scientific reference for the synergistic conservation of regional ancient tree resources and biocultural diversity.

Aims: The Hengduan Mountains, a global biodiversity hotspot and one of China’s most diverse regions for bird species, have not seen an update to their bird checklist in 30 years. As a core component of baseline biodiversity data, a species checklist is fundamental to regional biodiversity research and conservation, making its updating an urgent priority. This study aimed to provide an updated checklist of the birds of the Hengduan Mountains. 

Method: This study systematically updated the bird checklist of the Hengduan Mountains by integrating multiple sources of species distribution data (as of 30 July 2025) based on the AviList Checklist (v2025) taxonomic system. 

Results: A total of 1,012 bird species belonging to 26 orders and 97 families were recorded in the Hengduan Mountains, accounting for 67.3% of China’s total bird species. This represented an increase of 427 species compared with the previous checklist (Birds of the Hengduan Mountains, 585 species), including 402 new distribution records and 25 species elevated to species rank from subspecies. The bird assemblage was dominated by Passeriformes (609 species), and breeding birds were predominant (75.2%), reflecting the region’s importance as a key breeding area for birds. The area contains 258 nationally protected bird species (65.5% of China’s total of 394), 62 IUCN threatened species, and 102 CITES-listed species, highlighting its significant and prominent role in biodiversity conservation. Three bird species with questionable distribution records were identified, suggesting the need for further validation through field evidence. Additionally, based on the “Greater Hengduan” region delineated by similarities in geography, fauna, environment, and species composition, this study identified 26 bird species not previously recorded within the traditional Hengduan Mountains area, which helps to further reveal the characteristics of avian diversity in this region. 

Conclusion: This updated checklist represents significant progress in the foundational work on bird diversity in the Hengduan Mountains. It addresses a long-standing data gap and provides an important scientific basis for regional biodiversity conservation, ecosystem research, and sustainable development decision-making.

Aims: Timely revision and updating of provincial bird checklists are of great significance for bird conservation and management. This study aimed to revise, update, and compile an updated checklist of bird species in Guizhou Province. 

Methods: Based on The Avifauna of Guizhou published in 1986, combined with multiple data sources, and following A Checklist on the Classification and Distribution of the Birds of China (Fourth Edition), we systematically revised and updated the distribution and taxonomic status of birds in Guizhou Province. 

Results: As of December 2025, there are 606 species of birds belonging to 21 orders, 88 families, and 303 genera in Guizhou Province, accounting for 40.27% of the total bird species in China. Compared with The Avifauna of Guizhou, 175 species have been newly recorded. Passeriformes are the most abundant, with 340 species in 51 families. There are 134 species of national key protected birds (24 species at first-level and 110 species at second-level), and 44 species of threatened birds; 3 species are assessed as Critically Endangered (CR), 17 as Endangered (EN), and 24 as Vulnerable (VU) in the China Red List of Biodiversity—Vertebrate Animals. Nine species are listed in Appendix I of CITES and 62 in Appendix II. Resident birds are the most abundant, with 281 species (46.37%). A faunal analysis of 373 breeding birds shows that the Oriental realm is dominant (252 species, 67.56%). Waterbirds account for 145 species and raptors for 54 species. 

Conclusion: This updated checklist provides an important reference for bird diversity conservation, threatened species management, and future monitoring research in Guizhou Province.

Background & Aims: As a core component of China’s protected area system, national parks play a critical role in biodiversity conservation, ecological security, and regional sustainable development. With the ongoing advancement of the national park system reform and implementation of the National Park Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter referred to as the National Park Law), sustainable development research on national parks has become an important topic in recent studies. Through a comparative analysis between policy-derived keywords and research keywords, this study aims to reveal the degree of alignment and divergence between research hotspots and policy priorities. 

Methods: Grounded in the National Park Law, this study integrates literature related to the sustainable development of national parks published in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database from 2016 to 2025. By combining legal text analysis with bibliometric methods, this study systematically examines policy-oriented sustainability themes, major research topics, and their evolutionary trajectories. 

Results: Sustainability-related policy terms in the National Park Law are relatively evenly distributed across ecological, social, and governance dimensions, with a greater emphasis on the ecological dimension. Research on the sustainable development of China’s national parks has shown a rapid growth trend, with research themes shifting from institutional exploration toward integrated issues involving ecological conservation, community development, and governance mechanisms. A high degree of alignment exists between academic research and the National Park Law in areas such as ecological protection, biodiversity conservation, and ecotourism, whereas significant research gaps remain in institutional aspects, including ecosystem integrity, science-based conservation, and integrated management. 

Conlusions: Future research should focus on integrated analyses of social-ecological systems, strengthen evaluations of governance mechanisms within a rule-of-law framework, explore synergistic pathways between ecological conservation and sustainable use, and promote the application of multi-scale dynamic monitoring approaches. The results provide a scientific basis for advancing the sustainable development of China’s national parks and improving their management effectiveness.

Background: Biodiversity net gain (BNG) requires development to deliver a measurable net improvement in biodiversity relative to the pre-development baseline after avoidance, minimization, and restoration measures have been applied. 

Review Results: Drawing on the United Kingdom’s mandatory BNG regime and the United States’ wetland mitigation banking, this paper focuses on how BNG can be integrated into China’s territorial spatial planning system. The analysis shows that the “Three Zones Delineated by Three Lines for Land Use” (“Three Zones and Three Lines”) framework, detailed planning, land-use control, paid use of state-owned construction land, and the “One Map” supervision system provide institutional interfaces for target allocation, permission control, delivery, and monitoring. Major barriers remain in technical standards, legal authorization, interdepartmental coordination, and market infrastructure. 

Suggestions: The paper proposes a “1+N” hierarchical and differentiated metric system based on data from the Third National Land Survey, a government-regulated territorial habitat banking system and a registration mechanism for biodiversity gain entitlements, and the integration of BNG obligations into planning preparation and approval, detailed planning, land-use conversion, land transfer, environmental impact assessment, and full-lifecycle supervision. Together, these measures translate BNG into a measurable, enforceable, and traceable obligation within China’s territorial spatial planning system.

Aims: The development of China’s national botanical garden system has made digitalization and artificial intelligence (AI) increasingly important for enhancing the effectiveness of ex situ plant conservation. However, AI applications in many botanical gardens remain fragmented, with limited system-level design and few quantitative tools for capability assessment. This study aims to address this gap by constructing a comprehensive AI capability reference model, an associated maturity assessment framework, and an application architecture tailored to the national botanical garden system. 

Methods: Grounded in practical experience at Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, we developed the national botanical gardens-AI capability reference model (NBG-AICRM). The model follows a bottom-up architecture that links infrastructure support, data acquisition, data governance, intelligent analytics, and scenario-based applications. It consists of five logical layers—infrastructure, data sensing, data management, intelligent analytics, and application scenario—which together cover 25 key capability items and several extended items. Each capability item is assessed using a six-level maturity scale from Level 0 to Level 5. Based on this framework, we formulated an application-scenario-driven reverse architecture design method and a “Smart Conservation Matrix”, a nine-grid strategic framework that maps conservation priorities to AI solutions. To validate the architectural guidance of the model, we built the smart plant attendant (SPA), a large language model-based system that uses Text-to-SQL technology to support natural-language-driven, management-oriented analysis of conservation data. The system was trialed at Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden. 

Results: The NBG-AICRM provided a structured diagnosis of AI maturity levels, identified specific capability gaps in infrastructure and algorithm application, and outlined a phased upgrade path. The SPA system converted natural language queries into executable SQL statements, enabling conservation staff to retrieve and analyze conservation- relevant information—such as living-collection status trends and the representation of endangered species—without writing code. The initial deployment demonstrated that the model can help address the planning gap in the AI-enabled transformation of botanical gardens and strengthen the linkage among heterogeneous data resources, AI technologies, and day-to-day conservation operations. 

Conclusion: The NBG-AICRM and its companion design methods offer a unified and replicable reference framework for building AI capabilities across China’s national botanical garden system. By formalizing maturity assessment and application architecture, this approach provides both a theoretical paradigm and a practical pathway for integrating data, intelligence, and conservation operations, thereby supporting the digital transformation of plant ex situ conservation. It may also provide a basis for coordinating future AI investment, capability planning, and policy support within the national botanical garden system.

Background & Aims: Global climate change profoundly impacts human society and the natural environment on which it depends. Our study systematically reviews the policies, measures and actions adopted by the European Union (EU), the United States and Australia to adapt to climate change, particularly within the biodiversity conservation domain. The concept of adaptation was formally introduced in the climate change field in 1990. By the early 21st century, Australia had released the first National Action Plan on Biodiversity and Climate Change. By reviewing progress in developed regions and countries, this study aims to provide references for refining China’s biodiversity conservation policies and actions in response to climate change. 

Results: Based on the analysis of keywords extracted from biodiversity policy documents on climate change adaptation, we found that the EU emphasizes ecosystem-based approaches and strengthening ecosystem connectivity; the United States prioritizes research and control of invasive species, highlights the role of ecosystems in climate change adaptation, and has developed adaptation measures for freshwater ecosystems; Australia focuses on policy formulation and management planning while prioritizing research. Regarding implemented measures and actions, nature-based solutions (NbS) including ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) represent widely recognized adaptation approaches internationally, which have been widely incorporated into national adaptation strategies and action plans. Other biodiversity-specific conservation measures included: improving ecosystem conditions through protection and restoration; protecting and managing large-scale landscapes, particularly expanding protected area networks and establishing ecological corridors; measures targeting specific species or ecosystems, such as controlling invasive species, reducing other threats, and assisting species settlement and dispersal; and conducting monitoring to support early warning and adaptive management. Finally, we report several best practices of biodiversity conservation for climate change adaptation. 

Perspectives: China has integrated biodiversity-related climate impact monitoring and NbS into its major national strategies. However, existing policies are fragmented and poorly coordinated across different authorities, with inadequate monitoring systems, technical standards, assessment frameworks and demonstration cases for climate-driven biodiversity measures. This study proposes the following recommendations: (1) enhancing top-level policy design and cross-departmental policy coordination, including spatial planning optimization under future climate scenarios; (2) improving long-term biodiversity monitoring and early warning systems; (3) formulating practical implementation guidelines and technical specifications; (4) establishing evaluation mechanisms for adaptive management; (5) promoting demonstration pilots in ecologically vulnerable areas to disseminate practical experience.

Background & Aims: Biodiversity investment has gradually evolved from a conceptual design into a key driver of the global economy’s green transition against the ongoing global biodiversity loss. In response to the increasingly prominent biodiversity risks and the lack of a systematic investment theory framework, this paper aims to elucidate the underlying logic and operational system of biodiversity investment, thereby providing a theoretical foundation for the deep integration of natural capital with economic and social benefits. 

Results: The study systematically reviewed the impact pathways of biodiversity risks on corporate operations. Following risk identification, it analyzed the theoretical foundations and logic underpinning biodiversity investment, established an integrated ecological architecture, and discussed various operational models and their respective application settings. Based on an analysis of the origin of biodiversity risks, this paper further elucidated the transmission channels through which biodiversity risks impact corporate costs, supply chains, and compliance and reputational standing. Consequently, it established a foundational logic anchored in the quantification of natural value, along with an associated ecological architecture. 

Suggestions: This paper proposes three constructive pathways for biodiversity investment in China, grounded in an analysis of the practical challenges at hand. These challenges include ambiguous property rights arising from the multidimensional nature of biodiversity value, the dual failure of markets and governments that deters social capital, and limited corporate awareness that undermines the precision of assessment frameworks. The proposed pathways consist of institutionalizing a verification system, operationalizing additionality validation management, and establishing a sustained financing framework.