生物多样性, 2023, 31(3): 22524 doi: 10.17520/biods.2022524

综述

木棉文化的生物多样性传统知识及其传承与利用

向文倩,1,2, 王文娟,,1,2,*, 任明迅,,1,2,*

1.热带特色林木花卉遗传与种质创新教育部重点实验室, 海南大学, 海口 570228

2.海南大学环南海陆域生物多样性研究中心, 海口 570228

Traditional biodiversity knowledge in Bombax ceiba cultures: Inheritance and utilization

Wenqian Xiang,1,2, Wenjuan Wang,,1,2,*, Mingxun Ren,,1,2,*

1 Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Genetics and Germplasm Innovation of Tropical Special Forest Trees and Ornamental Plants, Hainan University, Haikou 570228

2 Center for Terrestrial Biodiversity of the South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228

通讯作者: * E-mail:wangwj0618@163.com;renmx@hainanu.edu.cn

编委: 龙春林

责任编辑: 李会丽

收稿日期: 2022-09-13   接受日期: 2022-11-6  

基金资助: 国家自然科学基金(41871041)
中国工程科技发展战略海南研究院咨询研究项目(20-HN-ZT-02)

Corresponding authors: * E-mail:wangwj0618@163.com;renmx@hainanu.edu.cn

Received: 2022-09-13   Accepted: 2022-11-6  

摘要

传统文化往往蕴藏着丰富的自然保护和资源循环利用知识, 对当代生物多样性保护和生态文明建设具有借鉴作用。木棉(Bombax ceiba)是全球热带与亚热带地区常见的高大乔木, 树姿挺拔、花大可食、果实纤维可织, 很早就为人们所认识和利用, 在全球范围形成了丰富的资源利用方式与文化。中美洲及澳大利亚的木棉主要用于独木舟和雕刻材料, 而亚洲地区的木棉经济利用方法多样, 并具有更加突出的文化寓意, 是越南、缅甸、印度以及中国南方地区的“文化关键种”。这也使得亚洲地区的木棉古树(> 100年)远多于其他地区。中国的木棉文化历史悠久, 在《山海经》及三星堆出土的文物中都能找到木棉的形象。木棉极高的经济价值及其文化属性, 使得亚洲地区的村头田边通常分布着木棉“风水林”。在中国岭南地区、越南、孟加拉国等传统水稻种植区, 木棉常被保留和栽种在稻田间, 形成了亚洲特有的木棉-稻田农林复合体系, 蕴藏着丰富的资源循环利用理念及生物多样性保护意识。这一传统的农林复合种植模式可望申报中国重要农业文化遗产, 但尚待深入研究揭示其农业文化内涵与科学基础。未来利用现代科技手段, 揭示木棉文化及其传统生物多样性知识的生态学基础, 将对当代热带特色高效农业、乡村振兴及生态文明建设等具有积极意义。

关键词: 植物文化; 生物文化多样性; 民族植物学; 生态文明

Abstract

Background & Aims: Traditional cultures typically harbor some knowledge and skills on sustainably using and protecting natural resources, which is helpful in modern biodiversity conservation and ecological civilization construction. Bombax ceiba is a common tall tree in tropical and subtropical regions. The tall and straight trunk, big, red flowers, and the fruit fiber of B. caiba that can be spun make people know and use B. ceiba for a long time, has caused the nearby civilizations to learn how to ultilize the tree, and form a rich culture surrounding the tree.

Progress: In Central America and Australia, B. ceiba is mainly used for canoes and carving, while in Asia this unusual tree is of much more importance in utilizations and has become ‘Cultural Keystone Species’ in India, Vietnam, Myanmar and South China, and as a consequence, more ancient trees (> 100 years) of B. ceiba can be found in Asia than other regions. In China, B. ceiba cultures have a long history and can be traced back to Xia and Shang Dynasty since B. ceiba characters is found in SHAN HAI JING and the Sanxingdui Ruins. Due to its high economical use and cultural importance, B. ceiba is always the dominant tree in ‘Fengshui forest’ near villages and farmlands, with some rare species and native vegetation. In Vietnam, Bangladesh, and South China where rice is widely planted long time ago, many B. ceiba trees are kept in the rice fields and formed a special type of agroforestry system, i.e. kapok-rice agroforestry system. Resource recycling ideas and biodiversity conservation thoughts can be found within the traditional farming practices in this system, which is promising for applying China’s important agricultural cultural heritage to modern day conservation methods, although the underlying ecological mechanism is in need of further illumination.

Prospects: It is the important to explore the ecological basis of Bombax cultures and their associated biodiversity knowledge with modernized practices, with an aim to facilitate tropical special high-efficiency agriculture, rural vitalization, and ecological civilization.

Keywords: plant culture; biocultural diversity; ethnobotany; ecological civilization

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本文引用格式

向文倩, 王文娟, 任明迅 (2023) 木棉文化的生物多样性传统知识及其传承与利用. 生物多样性, 31, 22524. doi:10.17520/biods.2022524.

Wenqian Xiang, Wenjuan Wang, Mingxun Ren (2023) Traditional biodiversity knowledge in Bombax ceiba cultures: Inheritance and utilization. Biodiversity Science, 31, 22524. doi:10.17520/biods.2022524.

人类在长期利用当地生物或自然资源的历史中, 逐渐产生和保留了一些传统的生产、生活方式及相关知识体系, 形成了不同地区各具特点的生物文化(Maffi, 2001; Cocks, 2006; 毛舒欣等, 2017)。这些具有鲜明地方特色的传统文化往往体现了当地人对地方生态条件与自然环境的一种适应, 大多蕴藏着资源循环利用的思想和朴素的保护生物学知识(Maffi, 2001; Loh & Harmon, 2005; Cocks, 2006), 对当代可持续发展、生物多样性保护及生态文明建设具有重要的借鉴意义。

木棉(Bombax ceiba, 异名: Bombax malabaricum)广泛分布于全球热带、亚热带地区, 以中美洲、印度次大陆、中南半岛、澳大利亚北部以及中国岭南与西南地区最为集中。木棉主要生长在林缘、干热沟谷或开阔台地, 与人类生产生活联系紧密。木棉木材和果实纤维应用广泛, 木棉花可食用与药用, 是重要的经济植物(Wiersema & León, 2016)。木棉高大的形象和春季满树红花的热烈景象, 在亚洲与美洲等地的衣食住行、书画艺术等生产与生活中具有重要地位, 被赋予了深厚的文化寓意, 在很多地方都属于“文化关键种” (cultural keystone species) (Cristancho & Vining, 2004; Garibaldi & Turner, 2004)。当前, 木棉文化在中国的海南、广东、广西、台湾、云南、四川等地, 以及越南、印度、缅甸等国仍然广泛传承与应用, 发展成为这些地区重要的文化与旅游资源。但是, 目前还缺乏全球范围深入系统的木棉文化分析与总结, 木棉文化中蕴藏着的生物多样性保护传统知识及其在当代生态文明建设中的潜在作用等还缺乏探索与重视。

本文首先总结和比较了中国和全球主要地区木棉文化的主要类型和其中蕴藏的生物多样性传统知识, 然后以我国岭南及中南半岛等地广泛存在的木棉“风水林” “木棉-稻田农林复合体系”为例, 发掘木棉文化中的资源循环利用意识、生物多样性保护现状及基本生态学过程, 探讨木棉文化及其生物多样性传统知识的传承与创新利用路径, 以期促进当代生物多样性保护、乡村振兴及生态文明建设等。

1 木棉文化及其生物多样性传统知识

木棉是锦葵科木棉亚科木棉属(Bombax)多年生落叶大乔木(APG II, 2003)。历史上“木棉”存在同物异名、同名异物等情况。根据木棉的生物学与生态学特点等, 本文把历史文献中满足以下特征的植物视为现今植物学界所述的“木棉”。(1)树高: 一丈至数丈; (2)花期: 二、三月份, 先花后叶; (3)花: 以红色为主, 花朵极多, 整树同时大量开花; (4)果实: 纺锤形或椭圆形, 成熟后自然分裂; (5)果实纤维: 纤维较短、蓬松, 与种子易分离, 可作为被子、枕头的填充物; 经过特殊方法处理后, 通过“绩” “纫”的方式进行纺织; (6)种子: 多数, 逾百粒。

由于生态系统和气候条件以及经济社会发展程度的差异, 中美洲、印度、越南、澳大利亚北部以及中国南方地区的木棉文化及伴随着的物种保护意识与行为具有一定的差异(表1)。在中美洲和澳大利亚北部, 木棉常被用于造船尤其是独木舟(Griffiths et al, 2003), 或作为雕刻原材料(Griffiths et al, 2003)。因此, 这里的木棉树往往不会很高大。而在印度、孟加拉国、中国等亚洲地区, 木棉不仅具有极高经济价值, 如木棉果絮用于纺织、木棉花食用、木材用于乐器与棺椁, 还具有极为突出的宗教地位和文化寓意, 受到有意识的保护与栽种。因此, 亚洲地区的木棉古树非常多, 木棉文化及其生物多样性保护知识也具有较高的多样性(Jain et al, 2009; Jain & Verma, 2012)。其中, 尤以印度、越南、中国发展得最为典型。

表1   全球不同地区的木棉文化

Table 1  Bombax ceiba cultures in different regions of the world

分布区域
Regions
原住民
Local minority
经济用途
Economical use
文化含义与重要性
Cultural importance
文献
References
中美洲
Central America
印第安人、泰诺人 Indians, Taino蜜源、独木舟、食用、药用 Nectar source plant, canoes, food, and medicine祭祀 Ancient cultureBrinton, 1894
澳大利亚北部 North Australia尼格利陀人、托雷斯海峡岛民Negrito, Torres Strait islanders独木舟、食用、雕刻 Canoes, food, and carvingMaiden,1889; Griffiths et al, 2003
印度
India
达罗毗荼人、雅利安人 Dravidians, Aryans纺织、填充物、食用、药用、篱笆、乐器、棺椁、土地边界 Textiles, filler, food, medicine, fences, musical instruments, coffins, and land boundaries神树、地狱之树、图腾、胡里节燃烧木棉树、礼拜场所、风水林 The holy tree, tree of the infernal region, totems, burning the tree in Holi Festival, sacred grove, and Fengshui forestJain et al, 2009;
Jain & Verma, 2012
孟加拉国 Bangladesh孟加拉族、查拉尔玛 Bengali, Chalalma填充物、食用、药用、栅栏、棺椁 Filler, food, medicine, fences, coffins春季的标志 Sign of springSaiyem et al, 2021
越南 Viet Nam京族、岱依族 Viet, Tay稻田的地标、贡品、食用、药用、地名 The landmarks of the rice paddy fields, royal gifts, food, medicine, and toponym象征宁静繁荣的生活、流浪灵魂的庇护所、祈祷、越南国树、春季的标志、风水林、木棉-稻田农林复合体系 Symbolizes the peoples’ hope for a peace and prosperous life, and a refuge for wandering souls, pray, national tree, sign of spring, Fengshui forest, and kapok-rice agroforestry systemBarwick, 2004
中国 China
四川
Sichuan
苗族、彝族 Minority Miao and Yi纺织、填充物、食用、药用、地名 Textiles, filler, food, medicine, and toponym神树崇拜、祭祀、攀枝花市花 The tree worship, ancient culture, and city flower of Panzhihua刘本玺等, 2013; 姬慧娟等, 2017
广西
Guangxi
壮族、侗族 Minority Zhuang and Dong纺织、填充物、食用、药用 Textiles, filler, food, and medicine神树崇拜、时令、氏族标志、地域象征、爱情、花朝节祈福、迁村种木棉、风水林、木棉-稻田农林复合体系、崇左市花 The tree worship, seasonal change, clan symbol, regional symbol, love, lucky pray in Huazhao Festival, new village plantation, Fengshui forest, kapok-rice agroforestry system, and city flower of Chongzuo黄娇丽等, 2021;《岭南异物志》Lingnan Foreign Material Records
云南
Yunnan
壮族、傣族 Minority Zhuang and Dai纺织、填充物、饭甑、食用、药用 Textiles, filler, food steamer, food, and medicine神树崇拜、氏族标志、爱情、花朝节祈福、迁村种木棉 The tree worship, clan symbol, and love, pray in the Huazhao festival, clan symbol, and new village plantation《云南通志》《思茅厅志》《岭外代答》《明太祖实录》等 Chorography of Yunnan, Chorography of Simao, Ling Wai Dai Da, Veritable Records of Zhu Yuanzhang
广东
Guangdong
客家、壮族
Hakka and Minority Zhuang
填充物、食用、药用、入画、入诗 Filler, food, medicine, material of painting and poetry时令、地域象征、英雄、文人赠礼、风水林、广州市花 Seasonal change, regional symbol, hero, literati gifts, Fengshui forest, and city flower of Guangzhou《广东通志》《广州记》等 Chorography of Guangdong, Story of Guangzhou
海南
Hainan
黎族、苗族 Minority Li and Miao纺织、填充物、药用、篱笆、棺椁、蜜源、稻田地标、地块分界、造船业 Textiles, filler, medicine, fences, coffins, nectar source plant, the landmarks of the rice paddy field, land boundaries, and shipbuilding神树崇拜、图腾崇拜、家族兴旺、时令、地域象征、英雄、爱情、姓氏、分家种木棉、女士上衣图案、风水林、木棉-稻田农林复合体系 The tree worship, totems, symbol of family prosperity, seasonal change, regional symbol, hero, love, surname, plant Bombax ceiba when start a new family after marriage, patterns of Li brocade, Fengshui forests, and kapok-rice agroforestry system《道光琼州府志》《正德琼台志》《清代黎族风俗图》等 Annals of Hainan Prefecture, Records of Haikou, Li Nationality’s Custom Pictures of Qing Dynasty
台湾
Taiwan
排湾族、鲁凯族Minority Paiwan and Rukai填充物、药用 Filler and medicine爱情、高雄市花 Love and city flower of KaohsiungLin et al, 1992; Jain & Verma, 2012

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1.1 印度

印度的木棉经常会被种植在田坎用于边界划分, 这是因为木棉幼树多刺, 密植可用作篱笆(Jain et al, 2009)。成年木棉树可用作棺椁材料或火葬的柴堆(Gupta, 1971), 也可以用来制作乐器、火柴等(Joshi, 1995; Jain et al, 2009; Jain & Verma, 2012) (表1)。木棉果实纤维用于纺织, 或作为枕头和被子的填充物(Jain et al, 2009)。木棉花和树皮作为天然的染色原料, 可用来染色(Vadwala & Kola, 2017; Sheikh et al, 2019)。木棉在印度传统医学体系中享有盛誉, 在阿育吠陀(Ayurveda)、尤纳尼(Unani)、悉达(Siddha)医学中均记载了其详细的药用价值和使用方法(Singh & Panda, 2005)。印度人还以木棉花、花蕾、嫩叶等一起制作咖喱, 常用于招待重要宾客(Dastur, 1964)。

木棉是印度神话中最受欢迎的树木之一, 频繁出现在印度史诗《摩诃婆罗多》中, 约十二个章节。印度现存最重要、最古老的诗集《梨俱吠陀》(成书于公元前1,500‒900年间), 描述了用刺桐(Erythrina variegate)和木棉制成的战车, 表明木棉很早就为印度人所利用和崇拜。在吠陀时代(相当于中国商周时期)之后, 印度人将木棉视作神圣的树王和图腾, 不允许任何人以任何理由砍伐、食用、入药(Jain et al, 2009)。然而, 印度也有部分部落认为木棉会带来厄运, 甚至因其多刺的特征以及果实纤维不吸湿的特性被视为“地狱之树”, 使得当地人对木棉惧而远之, 不敢靠近(Jain et al, 2009; Shah, 2022)。这两种截然不同的信仰, 都在客观上保护了野生木棉古树。

木棉还受到印度妇女的推崇, 被认为是母亲送给孩子的礼物, 因此常把有木棉生长的地方作为祈祷和求子的场所(Jain & Verma, 2012)。以木棉为优势树种的树林常被印度人当作圣境, 与中国的“风水林”类似, 不得随意进入或砍伐(Jain et al, 2009)。这在很大程度上保护了当地的原生树种。

然而, 印度重大宗教节日胡里节(Holi)具有焚烧木棉的传统, 显著减小了木棉野生种群, 尤其是在印度北部的拉贾斯坦邦、中央邦和北方邦等州, 每年的胡里节大约砍伐掉2,000棵木棉树, 导致印度北部野生木棉树成年个体和幼树数量在过去几十年间显著下降, 进一步造成当地蜜蜂和濒危鸟类白鹳急剧减少, 影响到森林和农业生态系统的物种多样性和稳定性(Jain et al, 2009)。后来, 通过寻找木棉替代树种或仅焚烧木棉树枝, 对木棉树采取就地与迁地保护和大规模种植木棉幼树的方式, 才使得木棉种群逐渐恢复(Jain et al, 2009)。

1.2 越南

木棉在越南分布广泛, 是越南北部乡村的标志性植物, 生长在城市街道、寺庙、佛塔、河堤、村庄、稻田等地方(Phan et al, 2017)。据我国东晋葛洪的《西京杂记》记载, 西汉时期, 南越(包括今天越南北部、中部)向汉帝进贡“烽火树” (木棉树), 言: “高一丈二尺, 一本三柯, 至夜, 光景欲燃” (葛洪, 1985)。这说明, 至少在西汉, 木棉树在越南的地位就已经很高, 是重要的文化载体。

木棉花开象征着春天到来, 是越南春季典型的开花树种(https://vietnamnews.vn/life-style/654284/ flower-of-spring.html)。木棉集中分布在越南北部的农村地区, 木棉花开之时正是水稻插秧之际, 木棉蒴果成熟开裂之时恰逢水稻即将成熟时节。因此, 木棉被当地人称为“Hoa Gao”, 意为“稻田之花” (rice flower) (https://vietnamnews.vn/life-style/65428 4/flower-of-spring.html), 这一美誉可能来源于公元1284年(相当于中国元朝时期)。当时, 越南皇室琼珍公主(Quynh Tran)在海防市开垦立村时亲手种植了一棵木棉, 为人们劳作休憩提供遮荫, 并祈求稻田丰收(https://dienbientv.vn/tin-tuc-su-kien/van-hoa/20 2201/giai-ma-cuoc-song-cau-chuyen-phia-sau-tin-nguong-tho-cay-cua-nguoi-viet-nam-5761846/)。这棵木棉距今已有700多年历史, 于2011年被列为越南遗产树(http://www.vacne.org.vn/the-first-ancient-gao-tr ee-bombax-ceiba-to-be-honored-as-the-vietnam-heritage-tree/e1044.html)。这也体现出当地人民已经敏锐地意识到木棉可能与稻田的丰收有着一定关系 (Barwick, 2004)。

在越南的民间信仰文化中, 木棉是重要的象征(①何娟 (2015) 越南汉文小说《传奇漫录》中的女性形象研究. 硕士学位论文, 广西民族大学, 南宁.), 代表着越南乡村的质朴之美, 是越南人的精神寄托。此外, 在越南风水学中, 木棉可以辟邪驱魔; 木棉花杯状, 开放时如同万盏油灯, 天地相通, 寓意长寿(https://demenphieuluuky.com/component/k2/chi-nghenh-nam-bac-dieu-diep-tong-vang-lai-phong.html)。越南很多地名都以木棉花命名, 其中越南第一大城市胡志明市, 原名Saigon (西贡), 在越南语中意为“木棉树”。在越南文化中, 木棉受到神明庇护, 在各种寺庙内或附近都能看到木棉的身影, 如河内有名的天福寺、万柴古寺等都分布有上百年的木棉。而且, 越南人常将树神的神位设立在村头的木棉树下, 以祈求人畜兴旺、繁荣昌盛(罗琴, 2020)。这些传统文化在客观上保护了大量的木棉古树, 保存了弥足珍贵的木棉种质资源, 维护了局域生境与生态系统原真性。

1.3 中国

中国的木棉文化源远流长, 早在先秦古籍《山海经》中就有记载“大荒之中, 有衡石山、九阴山、灰野之山。上有赤树, 青叶赤华, 名曰若木, 日所入处”。根据多个文献相互印证(刘本玺等, 2013), 这里的“若木”即是木棉。《若木赞》言: “若木之生, 昆山是滨。朱华电照, 碧叶玉津。食之灵智, 为力为神” (刘本玺等, 2013)。这些记载不仅体现了木棉早在秦朝就已成为中国先民崇拜的神树, 而且证实了木棉花可供食用或药用。结合文献汇总、田野调查和半结构访谈发现, 不同地理区域均记载了木棉花、嫩叶、种子、根的食用与药用价值(Gupta et al, 2004; 陶鑫等, 2019; 唐爱存等, 2020)。在中国云南、广西等地, 新鲜木棉花是重要的时令蔬菜, 花瓣、花丝可用来制作馅饼、炒肉、凉拌等; 在粮食不足的时候, 海南黎族人还会将木棉花萼切碎, 与大米混合煮食。中国云南东南部、广东、海南岛等地的民众将木棉花晒干长期储存, 供泡茶、煲汤或用于制作汤粉等食物的“浇头”, 口感爽滑, 具有浓郁的地方特色(龙春林等, 2017)。

四川省商代遗址三星堆的二号祭祀坑出土的大型青铜神树1号神树的整体造型、附饰的象征符号等符合《淮南子》中“若木在建木西, 末有十日, 其华照下地”的描述。该青铜树可能就是参照若木(木棉)的形态制作的祭祀神树(贺小萍, 2012)。三星堆出土的青铜花蕾状铃铛与木棉花朵极为相似(图1A): 铃高12.5 cm, 宽6.5 cm, 与木棉花大小近似; 其顶部为花萼, 下部是花瓣, 铃舌的形状及顶端的分叉几乎与木棉雌蕊形态一模一样(图1B)。历史上, 四川及长江流域气候干热, 木棉曾广泛分布于四川等地(刘本玺等, 2013; 廖娟 2016(① 廖娟 (2016) 隋唐五代时期经济作物的地理分布研究. 硕士学位论文, 陕西师范大学, 西安.)), 攀枝花市和西昌市等地至今仍有较多自然分布, 进一步佐证了这种可能性。

图1

图1   中国木棉文化的典型代表。A: 木棉花; B: 三星堆青铜花蕾状铃铛; C: 《清代黎族风俗图》中的木棉与织锦; D: 清代名画《碧嶂红棉图》; E: 中国南方航空公司的航徽标识。

Fig. 1   Several typical representatives of Bombax ceiba culture in China. A, Bombax ceiba flower; B, Bronze bell unearthed from Sanxingdui Ruins in Sichuan Province; C, Li nationality’s custom of Qing Dynasty; D, The famous painting in Qing Dynasty; E, Logo of China Southern Airlines.


西晋郭义恭的《广志》记载: “剽国有桐木, 其华有白毳, 取其毳淹渍, 缉织以为布也”, 这表明西晋时期的人们就已经掌握了通过“淹渍”木棉果实纤维, 然后进行纺织的方式。今天的黎族人民还沿用传统的使用贝壳粉或草木灰制成碱性溶液, 浸渍或者热水煮木棉果实纤维, 来提高木棉果实纤维的可纺性(邓玲, 2007; 曹秋玲和李莉莉, 2014)。木棉还是海南黎族先民崇拜的图腾(涂刚鹏和陈思莲, 2011), 常以木棉纹形式出现在黎族纺织服饰中; 并在分家后或子孙嫁娶之后, 在新家的房前屋后种上木棉(图1C)。这反映出, 黎苗人民将木棉生长之地视为人类宜居之所, 并意识到人口增加时需增加种植木棉树, 蕴藏着资源与人口平衡的朴素的生态学思想。

木棉还是唐诗宋词和绘画中的常见素材, 并包含了朴素的植物地理与花期观察、物候变迁等知识。如“今日致身歌舞地, 木棉花暖鹧鸪飞” “蜀客南行祭碧鸡, 木棉花发锦江西” “水自山阿绕座来, 珊瑚台上木绵开”等诗句描述出了木棉花开的壮观景致和木棉的地理分布范围。“却是南中春色别, 满城都是木棉花” “几树半天红似染, 居人云是木绵花”等描绘出了宋朝中国南方地区包括城镇分布有大量木棉种群的景象。“木棉花尽荔支垂” “木棉花落刺桐开” “桄榔老大木棉红” “木棉花落鹧鸪啼”等, 更清晰地描述了木棉作为春天来临的象征, 利用木棉的花开花落来表达时令、渲染植物物候与季节变迁。在明清时期, 岭南画家开始以木棉为主题进行了大量创作(② 陈灿彬 (2017) 岭南植物的文学书写. 硕士学位论文, 南京师范大学, 南京.), 如明末清初黎简的《碧嶂红棉图》(图1D)、叶梦草的《红棉碧峰图》、张深的《红棉仙馆图》、黄培芳的《镇海楼图》等, 以各种形式的绘画记载了木棉既分布在山间谷地林缘, 也在高山峰顶林中, 成为今天研究木棉种群分布与变迁的重要佐证。

明末李云龙《木棉花歌》曰: “枝头犹是英雄血, 无奈流花不待君”, 首次将木棉作为英雄的形式;清初陈恭尹在《木棉花歌》赞誉木棉: “浓须大面好英雄, 壮气高冠何落落”, 认为木棉乃“南土群芳之主”。这些诗句表现了木棉挺立在生态系统冠层的形象, 证实了木棉至少在明朝就已经成为中国南方地区常见的高大乔木, 并已成为当地植物群落的关键建群种之一。目前, 木棉是中国广州市、攀枝花市、高雄市、崇左市的“市花”, 中国南方航空公司的标识也是一朵绽放的木棉花(图1E), 成为了广泛认可的广东省文化使者。木棉作为凛然正气的英雄和独立自强的形象, 及其全树均可利用的极高经济价值, 常被种植在烈士陵园、村头田间, 或作为城市内的行道树。这在客观上促进了木棉分布范围的扩展。

2 木棉“风水林”

在印度、孟加拉国、越南和中国岭南等少数民族聚居地区, 由于宗教崇拜、景观价值以及巨大的经济价值, 很多木棉古树得以保存, 甚至形成了一定规模的以木棉树为主的“风水林” (图2), 这些风水林发育有明显的乔木层、灌木层、草本层, 基本维持着原生植被结构( 李萃玲 (2013) 海南岛风水林初步研究. 硕士学位论文, 海南大学, 海口.)。海南省黎族和苗族人民通常认为, 木棉风水林能减少暴雨和洪水的冲刷, 可抵挡“煞气” (程鹏, 2018)。有些地方还称这类带状或岛状分布的林地为“水口林” (程鹏, 2018), 形象地说明了其水源涵养、水土保持的作用(图2C)。我们最近针对海南岛西部昌江县和东方市两处典型的木棉风水林, 采用标准样方调查法(10 m × 10 m的乔木样方、5 m × 5 m的灌丛样方、1 m × 1 m的草本植物样方)研究了木棉风水林的物种多样性。结果发现, 木棉风水林乔木层主要由木棉、楝树(Melia azedara- ch)、鹊肾树(Streblus asper)、龙眼(Dimocarpus longan)、凤凰木(Delonix regia)、酸豆(Tamarindus indica)、杧果(Mangifera indica)、石碌含笑(Michelia shiluensis)等组成; 灌木层包括假连翘(Duranta erecta)、乌材(Diospyros eriantha)、黏木(Ixonanthes reticulate)、海南木樨榄(Olea hainanensis)、露兜树(Pandanus tectorius), 并分布有鸡屎藤(Paederia foetida)、南海藤(Nanhaia speciose)、羊角藤(Morinda umbellata subsp. obovata)等丰富的藤本植物; 草本层往往有20余种植物(表2)。此外, 木棉树粗糙的树皮及平展的树枝, 还可为兰花、榕树、蕨类等附生植物提供栖息地(图3)。因此, 一片木棉风水林常包含50种以上的植物物种, 并可吸引大量的鸟类、啮齿类、昆虫等动物, 成为局域尺度上生物多样性最富集的区域, 保存着当地的一些珍稀物种和残留的本底植被。

图2

图2   海南岛的木棉风水林(A、B)及其典型景观示意图(C)

Fig. 2   Fengshui forests dominated by Bombax ceiba (A, B) and the diagram (C) on Hainan Island


图3

图3   木棉树上的部分物种多样性。A: 丝光椋鸟; B: 暗绿绣眼鸟; C: 红耳鹎; D: 白鹭; E: 松鼠; F: 海南钻喙兰; G: 短序脆兰、窄唇蜘蛛兰、纯色万代兰、钗子股等; H: 白头叶猴; I: 大蜜蜂巢穴。G图由张中扬拍摄, H、I图来自网络(开放获取), 其余由向文倩拍摄。

Fig. 3   Species diversity on Bombax ceiba trees. A, Sturnus sericeus; B, Zosterops japonicas; C, Pycnonotus jocosus; D, Egretta garzetta; E, Squirrel; F, Rhynchostylis gigantean; G, Acampe papillosa, Arachnis labrosa, Vanda subconcolor, Luisia morsei; H, Trachypithecus leucocephalus; I, Beehive of Apis dorsata. Photos: G by Zhongyang Zhang, H and I from internet (open access). All others by Wenqian Xiang.


表2   海南岛木棉风水林的主要物种组成

Table 2  Species diversity of “Fengshui forest” dominated by Bombax ceiba on Hainan Island

地点 Study site乔木层 Tree layer灌木层 Shrub layer草本层 Herb layer
昌江县七叉大村
Qichadacun Village, Changjiang County
木棉楝树、凤凰木、鹊肾树、龙眼 Bombax ceiba, Melia azedarach, Delonix regia, Streblus asper, Dimocarpus longan南海藤、马缨丹、羊角藤、石碌含笑 Nanhaia speciose, Lantana camara, Morinda umbellata subsp. obovate, Michelia shiluensis蒌叶、矛叶荩草、金腰箭、飞机草、柠檬草、鬼针草、青葙 Piper betle, Arthraxon lanceolatus, Synedrella nodiflora, Chromolaena odorata, Cymbopogon citratus, Bidens pilosa, Celosia argentea
东方市田头村
Tiantou Village, Dongfang City
木棉、杧果、酸豆 Bombax ceiba, Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica假连翘、乌材、黏木、海南木樨榄、露兜树、鸡屎藤 Duranta erecta, Diospyros eriantha, Ixonanthes reticulate, Olea hainanensis, Pandanus tectorius, Paederia foetida蒌叶、白花菜、少花龙葵 Piper betle, Gynandropsis gynandra, Solanum americanum

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目前, 木棉风水林的群落结构、生态过程、生物多样性与生态系统功能等还尚待深入研究。根据实地调研和风水林特征, 我们推测木棉风水林可能具有以下4个方面的积极作用: (1)调节局域小气候: 木棉风水林可降低村落及稻田局域温度、增加空气湿度、降低风速, 又可为劳作者提供蔽日、躲雨和休憩的场所; (2)水土保持与水源涵养: 木棉根系庞大, 可以减少水土流失、提高水源涵养潜力; (3)增强局域生境异质性和生物多样性: 木棉风水林提高了生境异质性和环境资源水平, 创造和保留了一些珍稀动植物栖息环境, 保存了弥足珍贵的原生植被, 极大提高了局域生物多样性水平; (4)木棉风水林起到了“踏脚石”和生态廊道的作用, 连通了破碎化的植被, 增强了生态过程及生态系统完整性与原真性。当然, 这些还需要严谨的实验研究加以验证。

3 木棉-稻田农林复合体系

在中南半岛、印度和中国南方的传统水稻种植区, 常常有大量的木棉树分布在稻田之间(图4)。在稻田间保留木棉树和人为栽种木棉树的这种行为至少在约800年前就已经出现(https://dienbientv.vn/ tin-tuc-su-kien/van-hoa/202201/giai-ma-cuoc-song-cau-chuyen-phia-sau-tin-nguong-tho-cay-cua-nguoi-viet-nam-5761846/)。当地人们根据木棉是否开花来判断春季有效积温是否达到一定水平, 使得木棉花开成为了春耕插秧的信号; 田间的木棉花与果实还能提供巨大的经济价值。因此, 稻田和田间的木棉形成了一种特殊的农林复合种植模式, 是一种早期出现的立体经济形式, 提高了单位面积的经济产值, 可称为“木棉-稻田农林复合体系” (图4)。

图4

图4   海南岛木棉-稻田农林复合体系的典型景观(A)和基本生态学过程(B)

Fig. 4   The typical landscape (A) and basic ecological processes (B) of kapok-rice agroforestry system on Hainan Island, South China


木棉-稻田农林复合体系有着朴素的资源循环利用理念和生物多样性保护意识。首先, 木棉具有发达的根系, 既能够巩固田坎、涵养水源, 还能通过蜿蜒的根系提高土壤含氧量, 改善土壤细菌和真菌群落组成和多样性(Wang et al, 2022); 而且木棉根系还含有较多的具有抑菌作用的类黄酮物质(齐一萍等, 2006), 可以控制稻田土壤和水里的有害微生物, 从而提高水稻对养分的吸收能力(Joshi et al, 2013; Wang et al, 2022)。稻田中大量凋落的木棉花在热带地区高温高湿条件下的快速分解, 提高了稻田的营养水平, 有利于水稻生长。同时, 木棉花能够吸引大量杂食性鸟类(向文倩和任明迅, 2019; Xiang et al, 2022), 或吸引大型涉禽鸟类在木棉树上休憩、筑巢。这些鸟类有可能在田间捕食害虫, 如小白鹭(Egretta garzetta)取食福寿螺(Pomacea canaliculata) 等(图3D), 起到了生物防治的作用。

另一方面, 亚洲热带地区的稻田多存在春耕(旱季)、秋耕(雨季及雨季末期)两个耕种季节: 春耕时木棉处于盛花期和果期, 秋耕的时候木棉完全处于营养生长阶段。这导致木棉-稻田农林复合体系中的资源循环和生物多样性水平可能还具有明显的季节动态。因此, 木棉-稻田农林复合体系的资源循环利用过程、生物多样性与生态过程、群落结构生态系统功能等可能具有较强的时空动态, 影响到局域农田生态系统稳定性及水稻产量, 亟待进一步的深入研究, 以揭示这一亚洲特有的热带传统农耕文化的科学原理, 为当地水稻增产和传承木棉文化奠定基础。

4 木棉文化及其传统生物多样性知识的传承与利用

木棉文化具有广泛的群众基础和认可度, 木棉文化及其传统生物多样性知识的传承与利用对当地特别是少数民族地区的乡村振兴与生态文明建设具有积极意义。目前, 除了越南、印度、缅甸等地在大力发掘木棉的经济价值和旅游价值外, 中国海南昌江县、广西崇左市都在致力于打造“木棉之乡”; 广东省广州市、四川省攀枝花市等地都在以木棉文化为载体打造文化旅游和生态文明建设的亮点。但是, 目前也存在着同质化竞争、木棉文化及其传统知识发掘深度不够等问题。我们建议:

(1)错位发展、特色优先。当代对木棉的利用主要表现在旅游观赏或绿化建设, 以及作为救生衣等的填充物, 经济价值较低, 这与木棉文化的多样性及我国丰富的木棉资源严重不匹配。木棉集生态、观赏、药用、纺织、食用价值于一身, 有较大的潜力开发更多的资源利用方式。例如, 深入挖掘木棉的经济价值, 利用木棉果实纤维抗菌、防蛀、防霉等特性打造高端纺织产品; 借鉴和推广越南与印度等地的木棉食用方法(Rani, 2016), 开发木棉种子油、嫩叶炸食、雄蕊群晒干用于食用与药用等方面的利用方法。进一步开发木棉的旅游资源价值, 利用“旅游 + 农业 + 文化”模式, 推广木棉-稻田景观、打造地理标志产品“木棉稻米”, 在促进旅游业发展的同时, 实现农业节约化生产、提升农产品附加值, 错位发展, 依托具有地方特色的木棉文化服务于现代特色高效农业, 助力当地乡村振兴与生态文明建设。

(2)积极挖掘木棉文化的传统生物多样性知识, 促进民族自信和文化自信。木棉树作为亚洲热带地区的文化关键种和“风水林”主要树种, 深刻影响着当地自然生态系统与人类社会。木棉-稻田农林复合体系更是亚洲热带地区稻田特有的标志性景观, 具有独特的景观、悠久的历史、丰富的生物多样性、合理的资源循环利用理念与文化知识等, 具备申报农业文化遗产的潜力。海南省昌江县及邻近的东方市、乐东县等地是木棉“风水林”和木棉-稻田农林复合体系保护最完整、最典型的地点。建议这些地区积极牵头组织申报“中国重要农业文化遗产”, 整理总结相关的农业文化与传统知识, 利用现代科学及时揭示木棉-稻田农林复合体系等木棉文化的生态学基础与科学原理, 大力打造当地生态文明建设的亮点与样板、提升民族自信与文化自信。

(3)保护和利用木棉种质资源。自然界木棉的花色非常丰富, 除了最常见的大红色, 还有橙色、黄色、深红色等(向文倩和任明迅, 2019), 观赏及经济价值极高。除了花色的变异, 木棉也在株高、花期、雄蕊群合生程度、树皮皮刺数量、果实大小与形状等方面具有较高多样性(王健等, 2010; 王丕振和潘林义, 2018), 是深化与拓展木棉文化的物质基础。目前, 在海南省重大科技计划“揭榜挂帅”项目“木棉新优品种选育及产业化关键技术研究与示范”的资助下, 海南大学、中国热带农业科学院热带作物品种资源研究所联合相关企业, 在木棉原生种群集中分布地霸王岭王下地区, 引种和培育不同花色与花期的木棉种质资源, 建立了资源圃和博览园等, 传承、宣传与丰富木棉文化, 为乡村振兴、生态文明建设及后续的相关科技研发等奠定基础。

致谢

感谢文静、杨鑫等同学的野外协助工作。感谢张中扬提供照片。

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DOI:10.3389/fpls.2022.806217      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Bird pollination in Asia is regarded as an uncommon phenomenon and, therefore, only a few investigations on mating pattern and paternity in fruits of Asian bird-pollinated plants have been conducted. Here, we examined spatial genetic structure, pollen dispersal, and multiple paternity in a natural population of Bombax ceiba (B. ceiba) (Malvaceae) in Hainan Island, South China, using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. A low genetic diversity (He = 0.351 ± 0.0341 and 0.389 ± 0.043, respectively, for adults and offspring) and bottleneck effects were observed. Genetic kinship was significant within 400 m or in 1,800–3,800 m. Both the mating pattern and paternity analysis confirmed obligate xenogamy and a low multiple paternity in B. ceiba. There was a strongly negative relationship between the frequency of matings and the distance between mating pairs. The average pollen dispersal distance was 202.89 ± 41.01 m (mean ± SE) and the farthest distance of > 1 km was recorded. Realized mating events showed an extremely leptokurtic distribution within 1,200 m, suggesting that the pollen dispersal distance was consistent with the optimal foraging theory of generalist birds such as Zosterops spp. and Pycnonotus spp. Paternity per tree ranged from two to six and the average effective number of pollen donors per maternal plant was 3.773, suggesting a low level of paternity diversity as compared to other bird-pollinated plants. We concluded that optimal foraging behavior by generalist birds could explain the leptokurtic pollen dispersal distribution and predominantly near-neighbor matings in B. ceiba. The limited pollen dispersal distance and low multiple paternity were consistent with low fruit setting rate (3.27 ± 0.93%) in this self-incompatible tree, which was caused mainly by the restricted flight distance of birds and human disturbances. Low genetic diversity and significant spatial genetic structure might have largely resulted from logging and human collection of fruits.

Xiang WQ, Ren MX (2019) Adaptive significance of yellow flowered Bombax ceiba (Malvaceae). Biodiversity Science, 27, 373-379. (in Chinese with English abstract)

[本文引用: 2]

[向文倩, 任明迅 (2019)

木棉黄花个体的适应意义

生物多样性, 27, 373-379.]

DOI:10.17520/biods.2019003      [本文引用: 2]

木棉(Bombax ceiba)花大、红色, 多为鸟媒传粉, 但也存在频率极低的黄花个体, 有蜜蜂访花。本文对比研究了海南岛木棉红花、黄花的花部特征及传粉过程, 以解释黄花个体的适应意义。木棉两种花色表型的花蜜组分(葡萄糖和果糖)及挥发性物质(烷烃类、酯类、酚类等)没有显著差异, 但黄花花瓣的反射波长范围均在鸟类与蜜蜂视觉范围内, 可同时吸引鸟和蜜蜂。木棉黄花的雌雄异熟程度较小(花粉活性时期与柱头可受期重叠较大), 可在传粉媒介访花次数有限的情况下同时输出或接受花粉。另一方面, 黄花有着更大程度的柱头探出式雌雄异位, 降低了较小程度雌雄异熟可能导致的自交与雌雄功能干扰。木棉存在明显的花粉限制, 且黄花的坐果率(1.08 ± 0.56)%显著低于红花(3.27 ± 0.93)%。我们推测, 黄花个体可能通过增加木棉访花者类群多样性、降低雌雄异熟程度而提高了木棉的繁殖成功率, 也通过吸引蜜蜂而降低了蜜蜂对红花鸟媒传粉的干扰。

Zengbu CK translated by He XP (2012)

Pictographic study of the large bronze holy tree from sacrificial pit in Sanxingdui Ruins

Sichuan Cultural Relics, 165(5), 77-92. (in Chinese)

[贺小萍 译 (2012)

三星堆祭祀坑大型铜神树的图像学考察

四川文物, 165(5), 77-92.]

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